tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-59437753594356393362024-03-18T03:40:23.579-07:00The Economic RealmsExploring mainly Heterodox Economics, Monetary Reform, Environmental Sustainability, and relevant Emerging Technologies. It is a resource of Internet articles, and also promotes awareness of a futuristic modern universal Paradigm known as TFE, or Transfinancial Economics which is arguably the most advanced, and most "scientific" form of Economics of its kind. Modern Monetary Theory( MMT) which is similar to TFE is far less advanced . Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.comBlogger1330125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-51757471362635118582023-12-09T07:42:00.000-08:002023-12-09T07:42:17.740-08:00The Minksy Model of Steve Keen<p> </p><hgroup style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px;"><h2 style="box-sizing: border-box; color: inherit; font-family: inherit; font-size: 20px; font-weight: 500; line-height: 1.1; margin-bottom: 10px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;"><a href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/2023/06/06/to-minsky-or-not-that-it-the-question/" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #b21010; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;">To Minsky, or not? That it the question.</a> From Richard Murphy's blog on Tax Justice etc.</span></h2><div><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;"><br /></span></div><p class="small" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 17px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><span class="meta-prep meta-prep-author" style="box-sizing: border-box;">Posted on</span> <a href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/2023/06/06/to-minsky-or-not-that-it-the-question/" rel="bookmark" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #b21010; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" title="7:53 am">June 6 2023</a></p></hgroup><div class="entry" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">As I <a href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/2023/06/05/steve-keen/" rel="noopener noreferrer" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #b21010; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank">mentioned yesterday</a>, I spent six hours with Steve Keen yesterday. He cam down to see me in Ely, and we talked economics, MMT, annoying aspects of ageing and about his software programs, Minsky and Ravel.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">Minsky is an <a href="https://sourceforge.net/p/minsky/home/Home/" rel="noopener noreferrer" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #b21010; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank">economic modelling tool</a> built on the principles of <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/D/#double-entry" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">double entry</a>. It is open source and free. There is a manual of a couple of hundred pages. Anyone is free to have a go, but as we rapidly found, it's best not to try it on a Mac, where it only ‘sort of' works.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">The process begins by defining the key players in the model that is being built. We looked at the function of <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/C/#central-banks" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">central banks</a> and so looked at the <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/C/#central-bank" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">central bank</a>, private banks, the Treasury and the private sector economy (which was a bit of a catch all that could clearly be expanded).</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">Then you define the flows each might make e.g. government spending, taxes, bond issues, bond redemptions and repurchases, interest paid and so on, plus similar flows in the private sector e.g. loans and interest, etc.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">The model has to balance: critically, you are not allowed to make single entries (or rather, you are, but the model will make clear that it does not work, so you have to put them right). Given that most government accounting is single entry and most macro does not really recognise the role of <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/M/#money" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">money</a> in the economy, this is in itself quite revolutionary stuff.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">Then Steve worked forward, explaining how relationships between variables can be defined within parameters so that behaviour can be predicted. You begin to end up with screens looking like this:</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-70236" height="309" sizes="(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px" src="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/IMG_1113-550x309.png" srcset="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/IMG_1113-550x309.png 550w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/IMG_1113-534x300.png 534w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/IMG_1113-768x431.png 768w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/IMG_1113-600x337.png 600w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/IMG_1113.png 1024w" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; max-width: 95%; vertical-align: middle;" width="550" /></p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">Charting results is one of the easier things to do.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">I make no pretence that I have learned the programme as yet. There is syntax that I have been introduced to, but I suspect have not mastered as yet. And there were methods used that I am bound to forget until I try it for myself and have to rediscover them - although at least I know they are there, somewhere, now. That seems a little daunting, but so too did computer aided design (CAD) when I first tried to use it, and now I am pretty good with it and have little difficulty thinking of ways to sort out issues. I suspect Minsky will be like that.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">I actually think the comparison between CAD and Minsky might be quite appropriate. Both provide toolboxes and a workspace. What you do thereafter is up to you. If you have nothing you want to design using CAD there is no point learning it. If you have nothing in the economy that you want to model the effort spent learning Minsky would also be a waste of time.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">What might I model? I was sufficiently excited by this model to lose sleep over it last night, something I am not inclined to do very often. Thoughts on what to model included:</p><ol style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 0px;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box; text-align: left;">The problem of accounting for government interest costs in a period of <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/I/#inflation" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">inflation</a> - which involves no known double entry in the way that the ONS does it.</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; text-align: left;">Accounting for government debt itself, which again is based on rather dubious single entry accounting in the way that the ONS do it.</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; text-align: left;">Modelling tax revenues and multiplier effects within them. Linking this to GDP would also be good. Linking it to wheat makes up GDP might be even better.</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; text-align: left;">Modelling central bank digitise currencies and what that would demand that the government get its head around.</li></ol><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">I am certain there is a great deal more.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">Ravel is a digital data display program that lays over Minsky. It is not open source or free. It looks to be very powerful. For those familiar with it, Tableu looks to be what it approximates to. For me I can see massive uses for it. Steve is giving me a copy.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">However, all this requires an investment in a decent PC, because this requires i7 processing power and decent graphic cards I think, plus good storage to read and write what look like they could become pretty big files. That's my question for the day. Do I fork out now and break more than 12 years working solely on the Mac?</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">I will let you know. But the temptation is very a strong. These programs will let me look at issues in new ways. And that is always exciting. And it is for precisely this type of investment that I accept donations on the blog.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">( Blogger comment Though interesting to some degree it is no match to the kind of understanding of the economy as understood in Transfinancial Economics).</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><br /></p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=steve+keen+minsky+richard+&sca_esv=589391910&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB981&sxsrf=AM9HkKlh0w-eH_MUU76SfBD6t7diTtlatQ%3A1702135139402&ei=Y4V0ZbKBGKK_hbIP_rCOEA&ved=0ahUKEwjyvt_C04KDAxWiX0EAHX6YAwIQ4dUDCBA&oq=steve+keen+minsky+richard+&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiGnN0ZXZlIGtlZW4gbWluc2t5IHJpY2hhcmQgMgUQIRigAUjEPlDRC1jAHHABeACQAQCYAeIBoAGECqoBBTAuOC4xuAEMyAEA-AEBwgINEAAYgAQYFBiHAhiwA8ICCBAAGIAEGLADwgIFEAAYgATCAgYQABgWGB7iAwQYASBBiAYBkAYD&sclient=gws-wiz-serp#ip=1">Some links to more about Minsky/Keen model for anyone interested</a><br /></p></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-34274897525227546272023-12-09T07:10:00.000-08:002023-12-09T07:13:20.625-08:00How much is enough? Government subsidies in supporting green product development <p> </p><p><br /></p><p></p><div class="publication-cover u-show-from-sm" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1f1f1f; display: block; flex: 0 1 auto; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; min-width: 60px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: right; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: top; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/european-journal-of-operational-research/vol/309/issue/3" style="background-color: transparent; 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font-size: 0.7rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/european-journal-of-operational-research/vol/309/issue/3" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0272b1; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;" title="Go to table of contents for this volume/issue"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Volume 309, Issue 3</span></a>,<span> </span>16 September 2023, Pages 1316-1333</div></div><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p> <button class="button-link button-link-primary" data-sd-ui-side-panel-opener="true" data-xocs-content-id="au0001" data-xocs-content-type="author" style="appearance: button; border-color: initial; 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box-sizing: border-box; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 8px !important; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 8px; text-align: left;"><button class="button-link AddToMendeley u-margin-s-right u-show-inline-from-md button-link-primary button-link-icon-left" style="appearance: button; border-color: initial; border-radius: 0px; border-style: none; border-width: initial; color: #1f1f1f; display: inline; font-family: inherit; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 16px !important; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 16px 0px 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s, color 0.3s ease 0s;" type="button"><span class="button-link-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; vertical-align: middle;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;"> Click for <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=using+subsidies+for+green+products&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB981&oq=using+subsidies+for+green+products&aqs=chrome..69i57j0i512i546l4.20099j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8">Other articles and papers on the use of subsidies and green products</a></span></span></button></div></div><div class="ArticleIdentifierLinks u-margin-xs-bottom text-xs" id="article-identifier-links" style="-webkit-box-direction: normal; -webkit-box-orient: horizontal; -webkit-box-pack: justify; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1f1f1f; display: flex; flex-direction: row; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 0.7rem; justify-content: space-between; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-label="Persistent link using digital object identifier" class="anchor doi anchor-default" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2023.02.011" rel="noreferrer noopener" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0272b1; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank" title="Persistent link using digital object identifier"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; 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color: #1f1f1f; display: flex; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"></section><section class="ReferencedArticles" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1f1f1f; display: flex; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"></section><div id="preview-section-abstract" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1f1f1f; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="PageDivider" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(31, 31, 31); box-sizing: border-box; height: 2px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"></div><div class="Abstracts u-font-serif text-s" id="abstracts" style="--sd-ui-line-height: calc(1em + 10px); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: ElsevierGulliver, Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Arial Unicode MS", serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="abstract author" id="abs0002" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 16px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Abstract</h2><div id="abss0002" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="spara009" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">This paper tackles the problem of a monopolist firm that is considering designing products with environmental qualities while facing significant research and development costs. A mathematical formulation is adopted to model the impact of government subsidy on the firm's choice between mass marketing, where only one standard product serves the entire market, and market segmentation, in which the firm develops ordinary and green products for two market segments. The firm's behavior in reaction to the subsidies is analyzed through a two-stage Stackelberg game. The obtained results reveal that the subsidy level does not affect the relationships between the environmental qualities of the manufactured products under different marketing strategies when the green market is not strong. Our analyses also demonstrate how an optimal subsidy level should be selected to maximize the social welfare, and how this optimal subsidy is impacted by various parameters such as the magnitude of the development cost.</p></div></div></div></div><div id="preview-section-introduction" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1f1f1f; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="PageDivider" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(31, 31, 31); box-sizing: border-box; height: 2px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"></div><div class="Introduction u-font-serif text-s u-margin-l-ver" style="--sd-ui-line-height: calc(1em + 10px); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: ElsevierGulliver, Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Arial Unicode MS", serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin-bottom: 32px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-s-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 16px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Introduction</h2><section id="sec0001" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="para0006" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">During the last two decades, firms have shown a greater willingness to spend money on developing green products for the positive environmental impact and also the potential to improve the firm's reputation (Miles & Covin, 2000; Fraj-Andrés et al., 2009; Leonidou et al., 2013). However, it has been observed that some firms are still hesitant to develop green products due to barriers such as: the extensive research and development costs and the high risk of failure (Hafezi et al., 2023). This is evidenced by an online survey conducted by McKinsey, which reported that over 50 percent of 1946 executives pointed out they would consider environmental issues in many areas, such as green product development. However, due to the steep costs, only a small portion of them (almost 30%) were actively seeking opportunities to invest in green product development (McKinsey Survey, 2010).</p><p id="para0007" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">For instance, since 1974, Japan has invested around $15 billion in hydrogen and fuel cells (Behling et al., 2015). However, it is unknown when this investment will start generating profit since firms are still unable to offer an effective and durable product at a reasonable price. While many researchers have been employed to improve the design of fuel cells in order to generate a more positive environmental impact, there is a remarkable need for additional investment in such technology.<span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">1</span> Therefore, given the existing challenges in developing green products, governments worldwide are using regulatory policies to incentivize firms to invest in producing environmentally friendly products. As a result, it is crucial that governments apply the best available regulatory mechanisms to encourage green product development. In what follows, we review some of these mechanisms, including the one that is the focal point of this study.</p><p id="para0009" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Many governments face the dilemma of trying to protect the environment while also endeavoring to stimulate and maintain economic growth. In response to these challenges, several worldwide ecological agreements have been born. A successful example is The Montreal Protocol, which was finalized by the United Nations in 1987 (Andersen et al., 2013). This protocol has already diminished 90% of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) and it is expected to result in further improvements by 2060 if the countries continue to phase out the remaining ODSs.<span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span> In addition to international agreements for environmental protection, many countries (e.g., Canada, China, and European countries) have enforced ecological regulations, also known as carrot-stick policies, such as taxes, cap-and-trade systems, carbon labeling, consumer rebates, and subsidies (e.g., Waide, 1998; Vine et al., 2001; Waide, 2001; Xunpeng, 2010; Krass et al., 2013; Andersen et al., 2013; Du et al., 2016; Drake et al., 2016; Li & Li, 2017; Luo et al., 2021). Some of these policies (e.g., taxes) penalize the firms whose products or processes harm the environment, while others (e.g., rebates) incentivize them to address environmental concerns (Galle, 2012; Dou & Choi, 2021). Depending on the characteristics of the problem under investigation, governments incorporate these policies either individually (Zhang et al., 2012; Gouda et al., 2016; Zhao & Chen, 2019; Wang & Wang, 2022) or together (Conrad, 2005; Ghosh et al., 2020). The studies investigating the impact of stick policies often target the environmental damage that results from the product or the process (Kroes et al., 2012; Gong & Zhou, 2013). On the other hand, some research focuses on carrot policies, such as government subsidies, to assess how firms can be motivated to participate in green practices (Li & Li, 2017; Shao et al., 2017). In addition, those who consider both tools often do not apply them on a single dimension (Bian & Zhao, 2020).</p><p id="para0011" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">One of the common carrot policies is to subsidize green products (e.g., either through rebates or tax credits), which can be given to consumers in order to enhance their purchasing power and incentivize green choices. For instance, Canada's Energy Savings Rebate program provides approximately CAD 200 million to eligible Ontarian retailors so that they can offer up to a 25% sales rebate to consumers who purchase qualified energy-efficient appliances in 2019 and 2020.<span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">3</span> A similar way to encourage consumers is to offer a tax credit for purchasing a green product. Since the prices of green products are often higher than ordinary ones, a tax credit per product sold helps to fill the gap between the purchase price of the green products and the consumer's willingness to pay. For example, to motivate firms to produce more electric vehicles, the American Authority provides a subsidy so that they can offer consumers a tax credit of up to $7500 when they purchase a new electric vehicle. This tax credit is accessible to every firm for the first 200,000 qualifying electric vehicles they sell in the US.<span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">4</span></p><p id="para0014" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">A government's financial support can also be used to encourage firms to invest more in the research and development of green products with higher environmental quality. This type of support is common in practice and is being implemented worldwide. In this situation, the creation of each unit of environmental attributes of products is usually valued due to its potential positive impact on the environment and social welfare in general. For instance, this could be manufacturing energy-efficient vehicles based on internal combustion engines (Lou et al., 2020) or improving new energy vehicles, such as enhancing the performance of electric-driving components of electric vehicles (Zhang & Huang, 2021). The Automotive Innovation Fund (AIF) in Canada (launched in 2008) is one practical example of this kind of support. The fund supported the research and development costs of ten projects between 2008 and 2017. A large portion of this fund ($569.8 million) was assigned to five automakers (Toyota, Honda, Ford, Linamar, and Magna) in an aim to produce products with higher environmental quality such as energy (fuel) efficient vehicles. The government of Canada confirms that the AIF has had a significant impact on reducing negative environmental consequences,<span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">5</span> e.g., reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Buekers et al., 2014).</p><p id="para0016" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Another well-known term is new energy vehicles (NEVs). This term has been promoted extensively in China, with government support, especially through the “Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles Industry Development Program (2012–2020)”. In support of NEVs, different levels of the Chinese government, including the national and local authorities, have invested nearly $58.3 billion in this program between 2009 and 2017. Although the majority of such support ($36.6 billion) was aimed at consumers in the form of discounted prices, a large amount of the funding was also poured into research and development for approved manufacturers.<span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">6</span> As stated by the Chinese Ministry of Industry, this support did not change significantly in 2020 (Reuters, 2020). Therefore, in this study, we follow the common approach in practice and the literature (e.g., Zhang et al., 2012; Yu et al., 2016; Li et al., 2020) in which any research and development effort in protecting the environment is rewarded and not penalized.</p><p id="para0018" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Our above discussions illustrate several examples that show how government subsidies can play a positive role in developing and promoting green products and sustainable technologies. However, there are many situations where government subsidies are very limited and inadequate. Moreover, there are situations where the government does not offer any subsidy schemes, or if it does, these policies are inconsistent, unpredictable, and poorly implemented. Kannan et al. (2022) recently identified several challenges toward the green transition through a systematic review of the literature. The authors reported that a lack of government funding and inconsistent regulations and policies as significant barriers to developing green products and sustainable technologies. For instance, it has been shown that limited subsidies such as small grants or incremental tax credits are not effective (OECD, 2006; Stevens, 2010). In addition, several empirical studies (e.g., in New Zealand by Barry and Chapman (2009); in the Kingdom of Bahrain by Dutta (2015); in the European Union by Ghisetti et al. (2015), and in Saudi Arabia by Chien et al. (2022)) also discuss the importance of sufficient government supports for green product development and utilizing green technologies.</p><p id="para0019" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In an empirical study conducted in Indonesia, Setyawat (2020) explained that the government does not offer any subsidy scheme to support and promote solar technology for private use. Although not having any subsidy policy is considered a barrier, inconsistent and unpredictable policies can remove firms’ incentives to invest in environmental innovation and create many uncertainties (Ghisetti et al., 2015). Sawin (2004) argued that on-and-off policies resulted in suspended projects and lay-offs in the U.S. and Denmark. An example of how unpredictable policy leads to uncertainty can also be observed in the sale of electric vehicles in Ontario, Canada. The sales in Ontario dropped by more than half in the first six months of 2019 compared to the same period in 2018, which can be explained by the cancelation of the rebate program shortly after the progressive conservative government was elected.</p><p id="para0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">As exemplified by the cases above, government subsidies do not widely exist, or if they do, they do not automatically encourage firms to participate in green product development. The subsidies should also be adequate, consistent, and properly implemented to be effective. Therefore, one practical question that the government bodies are facing is:</p><ul class="list" style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><li class="react-xocs-list-item" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; flex-shrink: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; width: 24px;">■</span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="para0021" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: bolder; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">How can governments set their subsidy levels to encourage profit-maximizing firms to invest in green product development while improving total social welfare?</em></span></p></span></li></ul><p></p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Addressing the above research question is an essential step in extending the literature on green product development. It is also worth mentioning that although one of the main intentions of imposing regulations is to protect the environment, the overall impact on all stakeholders is what the government is most concerned about (Zhao et al., 2018). For example, Hafezi and Zolfagharinia (2018) demonstrated that environmental regulations that were too strict can make firms reluctant to innovate, and may have an adverse economic impact. That is why the literature concludes that governments should take a more moderate approach in setting environmental policies to balance consumers’ benefits and environmental benefits where the impact on firms is addressed (e.g., Wang et al., 2021). Therefore, in setting the regulations, the subsidy is targeted at a level to maximize the aggregate impact on social benefits while minimizing government expenditures (Skerlos et al., 2010). Recently, more studies have adopted this holistic approach to investigate the role of government in the development of green products (e.g., Li & Li, 2017; Wang & Wang, 2022).</p><p id="para0022" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Therefore, in this work, we also take a comprehensive view by considering different aspects of social welfare, such as the firm's profit, consumer surplus, government expenses, and environmental impacts (Wang et al., 2021). We then employ a two-stage Stackelberg game theory approach where the government sets its subsidy level to maximize social welfare considering a profit-oriented firm that decides on the price and environmental quality of its products. By analyzing the proposed model, we are able to suggest the optimal subsidy level for the government to use to incentivize the firm to develop green products while also maximizing social welfare.</p><p id="para0023" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The remainder of this study is organized as follows: in Section 2, we review relevant studies to highlight the contributions and novelty of our work. In Section 3, the problem is defined, and its underlying assumptions are discussed. In Section 4, we formulate the mathematical model for two marketing strategies. In addition, the optimal subsidy levels are determined for each marketing strategy, and the effects of the parameters on the optimal subsidies are analyzed. In Section 5, the impact of government subsidies on the prices and environmental quality of the products is investigated in detail. Then, in Section 6, we investigate the effect of government subsidies on both firms’ marketing strategies and the total social welfare. Lastly, we conclude with a summary of managerial insights and propose some areas for future research.</p></section></div></div><div id="preview-section-snippets" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1f1f1f; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="PageDivider" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(31, 31, 31); box-sizing: border-box; height: 2px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"></div><div class="Snippets u-font-serif text-s" style="--sd-ui-line-height: calc(1em + 10px); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: ElsevierGulliver, Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Arial Unicode MS", serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-ver" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 32px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px; padding: 0px;">Section snippets</h2><section style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><section id="sec0002" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;">Literature review</h2><p id="para0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Over the last few years, problems related to the impact of government regulations on the production and development of green products have received a remarkable amount of attention. Saberi et al. (2018) believe that to reduce negative environmental effects, regulators should design policies that encourage firms to invest in environmentally friendly products, or they should penalize companies that do not invest in the production of green products. They discussed multiple practical tools in this</p></section></section><section style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><section id="sec0006" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;">Problem definition</h2><p id="para0044" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">We consider a monopoly firm producing a durable product with traditional quality <span class="math" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi is="true">x</mi></math>" id="MathJax-Element-1-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="1.394ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.235ex;" viewbox="0 -498.8 572.5 600.2" width="1.33ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-78"></use></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi is="true">x</mi></math></span></span></span> and environmental quality <span class="math" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi is="true">y</mi></math>" id="MathJax-Element-2-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="1.855ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.697ex;" viewbox="0 -498.8 497.5 798.9" width="1.155ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-79"></use></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi is="true">y</mi></math></span></span></span>. Since a durable product does not need to be purchased frequently, we assume that the purchase cannot be repeated. Therefore, each consumer buys only one unit of the product, regardless of its type, which has been an assumption commonly used in the literature (e.g., Chen, 2001; Jing, 2011; Zhang et al., 2017; Hafezi & Zolfagharinia, 2018). Consumers will select products based on their</p></section></section><section style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><section id="sec0007" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;">Formulating marketing strategies</h2><p id="para0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In this section, we introduce the parameters, notations, and decision variables as shown in Table 2, Table 3, Table 4. We also briefly review the Stackelberg game, which helps analyze the problem under investigation. Then, we formulate the mathematical model for both marketing strategies (i.e., the mass marketing and market segmentation strategies) to find the optimal subsidy level. Finally, we will examine the impact of changes in the green consumers' preference for environmental quality, the</p></section></section><section style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><section id="sec0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;">The impact of government subsidies</h2><p id="para0124" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">We will now analyze how the optimal subsidy level affects prices of the products, along with the firm's profits, in both marketing strategies.</p><p id="para9013" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"></p><section style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><p id="enun0013" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: bolder; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Proposition 7</span></p><p id="para0125" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"></p><ul class="list" style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><li class="react-xocs-list-item" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; flex-shrink: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; width: 24px;">(i)</span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="para0126" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The traditional quality level of standard, ordinary, and green products,</em> i.e.<em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">,</em> <span class="math" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow is="true"><msub is="true"><mi is="true">x</mi><mi is="true">s</mi></msub><mo is="true">,</mo><mspace width="0.33em" is="true" /><msub is="true"><mi is="true">x</mi><mi is="true">o</mi></msub></mrow></math>" id="MathJax-Element-3-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="1.74ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.582ex;" viewbox="0 -498.8 2795.5 749.2" width="6.493ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><g is="true"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-78"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(572,-150)"><use transform="scale(0.707)" xlink:href="#MJMATHI-73"></use></g></g><g is="true" transform="translate(1004,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2C"></use></g><g is="true"></g><g is="true" transform="translate(1779,0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-78"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(572,-150)"><use transform="scale(0.707)" xlink:href="#MJMATHI-6F"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow is="true"><msub is="true"><mi is="true">x</mi><mi is="true">s</mi></msub><mo is="true">,</mo><mspace is="true" width="0.33em"></mspace><msub is="true"><mi is="true">x</mi><mi is="true">o</mi></msub></mrow></math></span></span></span> <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">and</em> <span class="math" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub is="true"><mi is="true">x</mi><mi is="true">g</mi></msub></math>" id="MathJax-Element-4-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="1.971ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.812ex;" viewbox="0 -498.8 1012.3 848.5" width="2.351ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-78"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(572,-150)"><use transform="scale(0.707)" xlink:href="#MJMATHI-67"></use></g></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub is="true"><mi is="true">x</mi><mi is="true">g</mi></msub></math></span></span></span> <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">do not change by increasing the subsidy level</em> <span class="math" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow is="true"><mi is="true">&#x3B8;</mi><mo is="true">.</mo></mrow></math>" id="MathJax-Element-5-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="2.086ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.235ex;" viewbox="0 -796.9 748 898.2" width="1.737ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-3B8"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(469,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2E"></use></g></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow is="true"><mi is="true">θ</mi><mo is="true">.</mo></mrow></math></span></span></span></p></span></li><li class="react-xocs-list-item" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; flex-shrink: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; width: 24px;">(ii)</span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="para0127" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The environmental quality level of standard, ordinary, and green products, i.e., <span class="math" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow is="true"><msub is="true"><mi is="true">y</mi><mi is="true">s</mi></msub><mo is="true">,</mo><mspace width="0.33em" is="true" /><msub is="true"><mi is="true">y</mi><mi is="true">o</mi></msub></mrow></math>" id="MathJax-Element-6-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="1.855ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.697ex;" viewbox="0 -498.8 2631.5 798.9" width="6.112ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><g is="true"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-79"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(490,-150)"><use transform="scale(0.707)" xlink:href="#MJMATHI-73"></use></g></g><g is="true" transform="translate(922,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2C"></use></g><g is="true"></g><g is="true" transform="translate(1697,0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-79"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(490,-150)"><use transform="scale(0.707)" xlink:href="#MJMATHI-6F"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow is="true"><msub is="true"><mi is="true">y</mi><mi is="true">s</mi></msub><mo is="true">,</mo><mspace is="true" width="0.33em"></mspace><msub is="true"><mi is="true">y</mi><mi is="true">o</mi></msub></mrow></math></span></span></span> and <span class="math" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub is="true"><mi is="true">y</mi><mi is="true">g</mi></msub></math>" id="MathJax-Element-7-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="1.971ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.812ex;" viewbox="0 -498.8 930.3 848.5" width="2.161ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-79"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(490,-150)"><use transform="scale(0.707)" xlink:href="#MJMATHI-67"></use></g></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub is="true"><mi is="true">y</mi><mi is="true">g</mi></msub></math></span></span></span> increase by increasing the <span class="math" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi is="true">&#x3B8;</mi></math>" id="MathJax-Element-8-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="2.086ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.235ex;" viewbox="0 -796.9 469.5 898.2" width="1.09ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMATHI-3B8"></use></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi is="true">θ</mi></math></span></span></span> value.</p></span></li></ul><p></p></section><p></p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"></p><section style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><p id="enun0014" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: bolder; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Proof</span></p><p id="para0128" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The proof to follow is provided in <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: bolder; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Appendix A.7.</span></p></section><p></p><p id="para9014" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The results of Proposition 7 are to be</p></section></section><section style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><section id="sec0011" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;">The optimal government subsidy</h2><p id="para0156" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Although the provided subsidy costs the government, it can positively impact three other dimensions: the firm's profitability, the surplus of green consumers, and the environment. Therefore, when the subsidy is provided on each unit of the environmental quality regardless of the overall environmental attributes of the product (e.g., y<span style="bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">s</span>), we observe that the optimal subsidies are positive for both marketing strategies (i.e., refer to the results of Propositions 2 & 4). This infers that offering</p></section></section><section style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><section id="sec0012" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;">Conclusions, implications, and future research directions</h2><p id="para0193" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Environmental regulations and their effects on green product development have become a critical challenge for governments. Although subsidies are often considered as effective tools to encourage firms to develop green products by supporting the related research and development costs, governments need to set subsidy levels strategically to improve social welfare. In this study, we adopted a two-stage Stackelberg game to analyze the effects of government subsidies on firm's marketing strategies,</p></section></section><section style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><section id="ack0001" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="cesectitle0017" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">Acknowledgments</h2><p id="para0206" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Authors would like to express their appreciation to the <span id="gs0001" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada through an Insight Development</span> Grant <span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(#430–2018–0340</span>).</p></section></section></div></div><div class="Tail text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1f1f1f; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></div><div id="preview-section-references" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1f1f1f; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="paginatedReferences u-font-serif text-s" style="--sd-ui-line-height: calc(1em + 10px); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: ElsevierGulliver, Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Arial Unicode MS", serif; 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font-size: 20px; height: 2px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"></div><a aria-disabled="true" class="anchor full-text-link text-s anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377221723001455" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #767676; cursor: default; display: inline-block; font-family: ElsevierSans, Arial, Helvetica, Roboto, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="-1"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: all 0s ease 0s;">View full text</span></a>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-35797060487708959772023-08-19T06:02:00.007-07:002023-08-19T06:09:25.766-07:00Climate Change Denial...<p> </p><div class="mw-content-container" style="background-color: white; 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clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-size: 13.16px; max-width: 292px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 292px;"><div class="trow" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; display: flex; flex-flow: row wrap; width: 292px;"><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 290px; width: 290px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 216px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="750" data-file-width="1000" decoding="async" height="216" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg/288px-20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg/432px-20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg/576px-20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="288" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">Campaigns by climate change deniers portray scientists as disagreeing about global warming,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Cook_1-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Cook-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup> but datasets from various scientific organizations show <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg#Pairwise_correlation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="File:20200324 Global average temperature - NASA-GISS HadCrut NOAA Japan BerkeleyE.svg">pairwise correlations of 1850+/1880+ datasets exceeding 99.1%</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; display: flex; flex-flow: row wrap; width: 292px;"><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 290px; width: 290px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 216px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20211103_Academic_studies_of_scientific_consensus_-_global_warming,_climate_change_-_vertical_bar_chart_-_en.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="750" data-file-width="1000" decoding="async" height="216" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/20211103_Academic_studies_of_scientific_consensus_-_global_warming%2C_climate_change_-_vertical_bar_chart_-_en.svg/288px-20211103_Academic_studies_of_scientific_consensus_-_global_warming%2C_climate_change_-_vertical_bar_chart_-_en.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/20211103_Academic_studies_of_scientific_consensus_-_global_warming%2C_climate_change_-_vertical_bar_chart_-_en.svg/432px-20211103_Academic_studies_of_scientific_consensus_-_global_warming%2C_climate_change_-_vertical_bar_chart_-_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/20211103_Academic_studies_of_scientific_consensus_-_global_warming%2C_climate_change_-_vertical_bar_chart_-_en.svg/576px-20211103_Academic_studies_of_scientific_consensus_-_global_warming%2C_climate_change_-_vertical_bar_chart_-_en.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="288" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveys_of_scientists%27_views_on_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Surveys of scientists' views on climate change">Academic studies of scientific agreement on human-caused global warming</a> among climate experts reflect that the level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Cook_2016_2-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Cook_2016-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Powell2019_3-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Powell2019-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-EnvRschLtrs_20211019_4-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-EnvRschLtrs_20211019-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Myers_2021_5-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Myers_2021-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup></div></div></div></div></div><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="background: rgb(248, 249, 250); border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); clear: right; float: right; font-size: 12.32px; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em 1em; padding: 0.2em; text-align: center; width: 22em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0.4em 0.4em 0px;">Part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Category:Climate change">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size: 17.864px; line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0.1em 0.4em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding: 0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center notpageimage" style="border-collapse: collapse; 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual actions</a></li><li style="display: inline; margin: 0px;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNFCCC" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="UNFCCC">UNFCCC</a></li><li style="display: inline; margin: 0px;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="United Nations Climate Change Conference">UN conferences</a></li><li style="display: inline; margin: 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li><li style="display: inline; margin: 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Agreement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); font-weight: bold; padding: 0.3em 0.8em;"><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li style="display: inline; margin: 0px;"><span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="icon" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1056" data-file-width="1112" decoding="async" height="15" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="16" /></span> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Portal:Climate change">Portal</a></span></li><li style="display: inline; margin: 0px;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="185" data-file-width="180" decoding="async" height="16" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="16" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></b></li><li style="display: inline; margin: 0px;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="185" data-file-width="180" decoding="async" height="16" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="16" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></b></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="font-size: 14.168px; padding: 0px 0.4em 0.4em; text-align: right;"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini" style="display: inline; font-size: 12.4678px;"><ul style="display: inline-block; line-height: inherit; list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><li class="nv-view" style="display: inline; margin: 0px; word-spacing: -0.125em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Climate_change_and_society" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Template:Climate change and society"><abbr style="border-bottom: none; cursor: inherit; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration: inherit;" title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk" style="display: inline; margin: 0px; word-spacing: -0.125em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Climate_change_and_society" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Template talk:Climate change and society"><abbr style="border-bottom: none; cursor: inherit; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration: inherit;" title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit" style="display: inline; margin: 0px; word-spacing: -0.125em;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Climate_change_and_society&action=edit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none;"><abbr style="border-bottom: none; cursor: inherit; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration: inherit;" title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><b>Climate change denial</b> or <b>global warming denial</b> is dismissal or unwarranted doubt that contradicts <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">the scientific consensus</a> on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco industry playbook">appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[6]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Diethelm_McKee_7-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Diethelm_McKee-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[7]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Farmer_Cook_2013_p._449_8-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Farmer_Cook_2013_p._449-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate change denial includes doubts to the extent of how much climate change is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_of_recent_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Attribution of recent climate change">caused by humans</a>, its <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Effects of global warming">effects on nature and human society</a>, and the potential of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation_to_global_warming" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Adaptation to global warming">adaptation to global warming</a> by human actions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ncse-pillars_9-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-ncse-pillars-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSE-why-denial_10-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSE-why-denial-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Powell2012_11-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Powell2012-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> To a lesser extent, climate change denial can also be implicit when people accept the science but <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cognitive dissonance">fail to reconcile it with their belief or action</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSE_implicit_12-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSE_implicit-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup> Several <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Social science">social science</a> studies have analyzed these positions as forms of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Denialism">denialism</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-continuum_13-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-continuum-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Timmer_14-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Timmer-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[14]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[15]</a></sup> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-freeman351_16-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-freeman351-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Conspiracy">conspiracy</a> to undermine public trust in climate science is organized by industrial, political and ideological interests.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaidyanathan2014_17-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaidyanathan2014-17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[17]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-denial_machine_18-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-denial_machine-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[18]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Newsweek_denial_machine_19-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Newsweek_denial_machine-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup> Climate change denial has been associated with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuels_lobby" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fossil fuels lobby">fossil fuels lobby</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_activities_of_the_Koch_brothers" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Political activities of the Koch brothers">Koch brothers</a>, industry advocates, conservative <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_tank" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Think tank">think tanks</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_media_(U.S._political_right)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alternative media (U.S. political right)">conservative alternative media</a>, often in the United States.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-freeman351_16-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-freeman351-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[20]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Michaels_21-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Michaels-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[21]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hoggan_22-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Hoggan-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[22]</a></sup> More than 90% of papers that are skeptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[23]</a></sup> Climate change denial is undermining the efforts to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change mitigation">act on or adapt to climate change</a>, and exerts a powerful influence on <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_global_warming" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Politics of global warming">politics of global warming</a> and the manufactured <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_controversy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming controversy">global warming controversy</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[24]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-public-success_25-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-public-success-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In the 1970s, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Petroleum industry">oil companies</a> published research which broadly concurred with the scientific community's view on global warming. Since then, for several decades, oil companies have been organizing a widespread and systematic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobil_climate_change_denial" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ExxonMobil climate change denial">climate change denial campaign</a> to seed public disinformation, a strategy that has been compared to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco industry playbook">organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking</a> by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_industry" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco industry">tobacco industry</a>. Some of the campaigns are even carried out by the same individuals who previously spread the tobacco industry's denialist propaganda.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NYT-20151105_26-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NYT-20151105-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[26]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-TG-20150708_27-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-TG-20150708-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[27]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[28]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Terminology">Terminology</span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">"Climate change skepticism" and "climate change denial" refer to denial, dismissal or unwarranted doubt of the scientific consensus on the rate and extent of global warming, its significance, or its connection to human behavior, in whole or in part.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[29]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSE_2012_why_30-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSE_2012_why-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[30]</a></sup> Though there is a distinction between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a> which indicates doubting the truth of an assertion and outright <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Denial">denial</a> of the truth of an assertion, in the public debate phrases such as "climate skepticism" have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrarian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Contrarian">contrarianism</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Nerlich_2010_31-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Nerlich_2010-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[32]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The terminology emerged in the 1990s. Even though all scientists adhere to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific skepticism">scientific skepticism</a> as an inherent part of the process, by mid November 1995 the word "skeptic" was being used specifically for the minority who publicized views contrary to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific opinion on climate change">scientific consensus</a>. This small group of scientists presented their views in public statements and the media, rather than to the scientific community.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[34]</a></sup> This usage continued.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[35]</a></sup> In his December 1995 article "The Heat is On: The warming of the world's climate sparks a blaze of denial", <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Gelbspan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ross Gelbspan">Ross Gelbspan</a> said industry had engaged "a small band of skeptics" to confuse public opinion in a "persistent and well-funded campaign of denial".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Gelbspan_36-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Gelbspan-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup> His 1997 book <i>The Heat is On</i> may have been the first to concentrate specifically on the topic.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[37]</a></sup> In it, Gelbspan discussed a "pervasive denial of global warming" in a "persistent campaign of denial and suppression" involving "undisclosed funding of these 'greenhouse skeptics' " with "the climate skeptics" confusing the public and influencing decision makers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Gelbspan_1998_38-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Gelbspan_1998-38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[38]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A November 2006 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBC_Television" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CBC Television">CBC Television</a> documentary on the campaign was titled <i>The Denial Machine</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-39" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[39]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Orlóci_Denial_Machine_40-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Orl%C3%B3ci_Denial_Machine-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup> In 2007 journalist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Begley" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sharon Begley">Sharon Begley</a> reported on the "denial machine",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Begley_machine_41-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Begley_machine-41" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[41]</a></sup> a phrase subsequently used by academics.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-denial_machine_18-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-denial_machine-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[18]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Orlóci_Denial_Machine_40-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Orl%C3%B3ci_Denial_Machine-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In addition to <i>explicit denial</i>, social groups have shown <i>implicit denial</i> by accepting the scientific consensus, but failing to "translate their acceptance into action".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSE_implicit_12-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSE_implicit-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup> This was exemplified in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kari_Norgaard" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kari Norgaard">Kari Norgaard</a>'s study of a village in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Norway">Norway</a> affected by climate change, where residents diverted their attention to other issues.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Norgaard_2011_42-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Norgaard_2011-42" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[42]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The terminology is debated: most of those actively rejecting the scientific consensus use the terms <i>skeptic</i> and <i>climate change skepticism</i>, and only a few have expressed preference for being described as deniers,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSE_2012_why_30-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSE_2012_why-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[30]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Washington_p2_43-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Washington_p2-43" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[43]</a></sup> but the word "skepticism" is incorrectly used, as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific skepticism">scientific skepticism</a> is an intrinsic part of scientific methodology.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-O'Neill_Boykoff_2010_44-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-O'Neill_Boykoff_2010-44" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[46]</a></sup> The term <i>contrarian</i> is more specific, but used less frequently. In academic literature and journalism, the terms "climate change denial" and "climate change deniers" have well-established usage as descriptive terms without any pejorative intent.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSEpreference_47-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSEpreference-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup> Both the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Science_Education" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Center for Science Education">National Center for Science Education</a> and historian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_R._Weart" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Spencer R. Weart">Spencer R. Weart</a> recognize that either option is problematic, but have decided to use "climate change denial" rather than "skepticism".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSEpreference_47-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSEpreference-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-48" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[48]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Terms related to "denialism" have been criticized for introducing a moralistic tone, and potentially implying a link with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_denial" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-O'Neill_Boykoff_2010_44-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-O'Neill_Boykoff_2010-44" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Anderegg_Prall_E152_49-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Anderegg_Prall_E152-49" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[49]</a></sup> There have been claims that this link is intentional, which academics have strongly disputed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-VerbalWarming_50-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-VerbalWarming-50" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[50]</a></sup> The usage of "denial" long predates the Holocaust, and is commonly applied in other areas such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a>: the claim is described by John Timmer of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Technica" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ars Technica">Ars Technica</a></i> as itself being a form of denial.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Timmer_HIV_51-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Timmer_HIV-51" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[51]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In December 2014, an open letter from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a> called on the media to stop using the term "skepticism" when referring to climate change denial. They contrasted scientific skepticism—which is "foundational to the scientific method"—with denial—"the a priori rejection of ideas without objective consideration"—and the behavior of those involved in political attempts to undermine climate science. They said "Not all individuals who call themselves climate change skeptics are deniers. But virtually all deniers have falsely branded themselves as skeptics. By perpetrating this misnomer, journalists have granted undeserved credibility to those who reject science and scientific inquiry."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-VerbalWarming_50-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-VerbalWarming-50" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[50]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CSI_open_letter_52-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-CSI_open_letter-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup> In June 2015 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Matters_for_America" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Media Matters for America">Media Matters for America</a> were told by <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> public editor that the newspaper was increasingly tending to use "denier" when "someone is challenging established science", but assessing this on an individual basis with no fixed policy, and would not use the term when someone was "kind of wishy-washy on the subject or in the middle." The executive director of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Environmental_Journalists" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Society of Environmental Journalists">Society of Environmental Journalists</a> said that while there was reasonable skepticism about specific issues, she felt that denier was "the most accurate term when someone claims there is no such thing as global warming, or agrees that it exists but denies that it has any cause we could understand or any impact that could be measured."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MMfA_20150622_53-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-MMfA_20150622-53" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[53]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry letter inspired a petition by climatetruth.org<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Petition_54-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Petition-54" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[54]</a></sup> in which signers were asked to "Tell the Associated Press: Establish a rule in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_Stylebook" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="AP Stylebook">AP Stylebook</a> ruling out the use of 'skeptic' to describe those who deny scientific facts." On 22 September 2015, the Associated Press announced "an addition to <i>AP Stylebook</i> entry on global warming" which advised, "to describe those who don't accept climate science or dispute the world is warming from human-made forces, use climate change doubters or those who reject mainstream climate science. Avoid use of skeptics or deniers."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-APStyleBook_55-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-APStyleBook-55" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[55]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-RealSkeptics_56-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-RealSkeptics-56" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[56]</a></sup> On 17 May 2019, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> also rejected use of the term "climate skeptic" in favor of "climate science denier".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GuardianDenier_57-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-GuardianDenier-57" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[57]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Further information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:18560823_Eunice_Newton_Foote_-_greenhouse_effect.png" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1737" data-file-width="1675" decoding="async" height="311" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/18560823_Eunice_Newton_Foote_-_greenhouse_effect.png/300px-18560823_Eunice_Newton_Foote_-_greenhouse_effect.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/18560823_Eunice_Newton_Foote_-_greenhouse_effect.png/450px-18560823_Eunice_Newton_Foote_-_greenhouse_effect.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/18560823_Eunice_Newton_Foote_-_greenhouse_effect.png/600px-18560823_Eunice_Newton_Foote_-_greenhouse_effect.png 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="300" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">Scientist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunice_Newton_Foote" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eunice Newton Foote">Eunice Newton Foote</a> published her recognition of carbon dioxide's heat-capturing effect in 1856, explicitly appreciating its implications for the planet.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58" style="font-size: 9.9008px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-58" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[58]</a></sup></figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:191203_Furnaces_of_the_world_-_Popular_Mechanics_-_Global_warming.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="584" data-file-width="1168" decoding="async" height="220" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/191203_Furnaces_of_the_world_-_Popular_Mechanics_-_Global_warming.jpg/440px-191203_Furnaces_of_the_world_-_Popular_Mechanics_-_Global_warming.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/191203_Furnaces_of_the_world_-_Popular_Mechanics_-_Global_warming.jpg/660px-191203_Furnaces_of_the_world_-_Popular_Mechanics_-_Global_warming.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/191203_Furnaces_of_the_world_-_Popular_Mechanics_-_Global_warming.jpg/880px-191203_Furnaces_of_the_world_-_Popular_Mechanics_-_Global_warming.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="440" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">The impact of the greenhouse effect on climate was described more than a century ago in this 1912 <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Mechanics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Popular Mechanics">Popular Mechanics</a></i> article.</figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Research on the effect of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span></a> on the climate began in 1824, when <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Fourier" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Joseph Fourier">Joseph Fourier</a> inferred the existence of the atmospheric "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>". In 1860, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="John Tyndall">John Tyndall</a> quantified the effects of greenhouse gases on absorption of infrared radiation. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a> in 1896 showed that coal burning could cause global warming, and in 1938 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Stewart_Callendar" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guy Stewart Callendar">Guy Stewart Callendar</a> found it already happening to some extent.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-conwayoreskes170_59-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-conwayoreskes170-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[59]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-powell36_60-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-powell36-60" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[60]</a></sup> Research advanced rapidly after 1940; from 1957, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Revelle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Roger Revelle">Roger Revelle</a> alerted the public to risks that fossil fuel burning was "a grandiose scientific experiment" on climate.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-61" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[61]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-62" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[62]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="NASA">NASA</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">NOAA</a> took on research, the 1979 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jule_Gregory_Charney" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jule Gregory Charney">Charney Report</a> concluded that substantial warming was already on the way, and "A wait-and-see policy may mean waiting until it is too late."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-63" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[63]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-64" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-64" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[64]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 1959, a scientist working for <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Shell</a> suggested in a <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i> article that carbon cycles are too vast to upset Nature's balance.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-65" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[65]</a></sup> By 1966 however, a coal industry research organization, Bituminous Coal Research Inc., published its finding that if then prevailing trends of coal consumption continue, "the temperature of the earth's atmosphere will increase and that vast changes in the climates of the earth will result." "Such changes in temperature will cause melting of the polar icecaps, which, in turn, would result in the inundation of many coastal cities, including New York and London."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-HuffPost_Coal_Knew_Too_66-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-HuffPost_Coal_Knew_Too-66" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[66]</a></sup> In a discussion following this paper in the same publication, a combustion engineer for Peabody Coal, now <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peabody_Energy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Peabody Energy">Peabody Energy</a>, the world's largest coal supplier, added that the coal industry was merely "buying time" before additional government air pollution regulations would be promulgated to clean the air. Nevertheless, the coal industry for decades thereafter publicly advocated the position that increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is beneficial for the planet.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-HuffPost_Coal_Knew_Too_66-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-HuffPost_Coal_Knew_Too-66" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[66]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In response to increasing public awareness of the greenhouse effect in the 1970s, conservative reaction built up, denying environmental concerns which could lead to government regulation. In 1977 the first Secretary of Energy, Republican <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Schlesinger" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="James Schlesinger">James Schlesinger</a>, suggested President Jimmy Carter take no action regarding a climate change memo, citing uncertainty.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-67" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-67" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[67]</a></sup> With the 1981 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Presidency of Ronald Reagan</a>, global warming became a political issue, with immediate plans to cut spending on environmental research, particularly climate-related, and stop funding for CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> monitoring. Reagan appointed as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Energy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States Secretary of Energy">Secretary of Energy</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_B._Edwards" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="James B. Edwards">James B. Edwards</a>, who said that there was no real global warming problem. Congressman <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Gore" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> had studied under Revelle and was aware of the developing science: he joined others in arranging congressional hearings from 1981 onwards, with testimony by scientists including Revelle, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Schneider_(scientist)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stephen Schneider (scientist)">Stephen Schneider</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Smith_Broecker" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wallace Smith Broecker">Wallace Smith Broecker</a>. The hearings gained enough public attention to reduce the cuts in atmospheric research.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-68" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-68" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[68]</a></sup> A polarized party-political debate developed. In 1982, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherwood_B._Idso" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sherwood B. Idso">Sherwood B. Idso</a> published his book <i>Carbon Dioxide: Friend or Foe?</i> which said increases in CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> would not warm the planet, but would fertilize crops and were "something to be encouraged and not suppressed", while complaining that his theories had been rejected by the "scientific establishment". An <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) report in 1983 said global warming was "not a theoretical problem but a threat whose effects will be felt within a few years", with potentially "catastrophic" consequences.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-69" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-69" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[69]</a></sup> The Reagan administration reacted by calling the report "alarmist", and the dispute got wide news coverage. Public attention turned to other issues, then the 1985 finding of a polar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone depletion">ozone hole</a> brought a swift international response. To the public, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone depletion and climate change">this was related to climate change</a> and the possibility of effective action, but news interest faded.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-70" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-70" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[70]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Public attention was renewed amidst summer droughts and heat waves when <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hansen" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a> testified to a Congressional hearing on 23 June 1988,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hansen_testimony_71-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Hansen_testimony-71" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[71]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-72" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-72" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[72]</a></sup> stating with high confidence that long-term warming was underway with severe warming likely within the next 50 years, and warning of likely storms and floods. There was increasing media attention: the scientific community had reached a broad consensus that the climate was warming, human activity was very likely the primary cause, and there would be significant consequences if the warming trend was not curbed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-earlyconsensus_73-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-earlyconsensus-73" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[73]</a></sup> These facts encouraged discussion about new laws concerning environmental regulation, which was opposed by the fossil fuel industry.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-74" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-74" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[74]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">From 1989 onwards industry-funded organizations including the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Climate_Coalition" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global Climate Coalition">Global Climate Coalition</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_C._Marshall_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="George C. Marshall Institute">George C. Marshall Institute</a> sought to spread doubt among the public, in a strategy already developed by the tobacco industry.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-tobacco-approach_75-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-tobacco-approach-75" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[75]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-marshall_76-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-marshall-76" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[76]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-tobacco-docs_77-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-tobacco-docs-77" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[77]</a></sup> A small group of scientists opposed to the consensus on global warming became politically involved, and with support from conservative political interests, began publishing in books and the press rather than in scientific journals.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-78" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-78" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[78]</a></sup> This small group of scientists included some of the same people that were part of the strategy already tried by the tobacco industry.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-merchants_of_doubt_79-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-merchants_of_doubt-79" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[79]</a></sup> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Weart" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Spencer Weart">Spencer Weart</a> identifies this period as the point where legitimate skepticism about basic aspects of climate science was no longer justified, and those spreading mistrust about these issues became deniers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Weart_p46_80-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Weart_p46-80" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[80]</a></sup> As their arguments were increasingly refuted by the scientific community and new data, deniers turned to political arguments, making personal attacks on the reputation of scientists, and promoting ideas of a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_conspiracy_theory" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming conspiracy theory">global warming conspiracy</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-81" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-81" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[81]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">With the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Revolutions of 1989">1989 fall of communism</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_movement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental movement">environmental movement</a>'s international reach at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Summit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Earth Summit">1992 Rio Earth Summit</a>, the attention of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States#Think_tanks_and_foundations" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Conservatism in the United States">U.S. conservative think tanks</a>, which had been organized in the 1970s as an intellectual counter-movement to socialism, turned from the "red scare" to the "green scare" which they saw as a threat to their aims of private property, free trade market economies and global capitalism. As a counter-movement, they used <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_skepticism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental skepticism">environmental skepticism</a> to promote denial of the reality of problems such as loss of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-82" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-82" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[82]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 1992, an EPA report linked <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_smoking" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Passive smoking">second-hand smoke</a> with lung cancer. The tobacco industry engaged the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APCO_Worldwide" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="APCO Worldwide">APCO Worldwide</a> public relations company, which set out a strategy of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroturfing" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Astroturfing">astroturfing</a> campaigns to cast doubt on the science by linking smoking anxieties with other issues, including global warming, in order to turn public opinion against calls for government intervention. The campaign depicted public concerns as "unfounded fears" supposedly based only on "junk science" in contrast to their "sound science", and operated through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_organization" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Front organization">front groups</a>, primarily the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advancement_of_Sound_Science_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Advancement of Sound Science Center">Advancement of Sound Science Center</a> (TASSC) and its Junk Science website, run by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Milloy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Steven Milloy">Steven Milloy</a>. A tobacco company memo commented "Doubt is our product since it is the best means of competing with the 'body of fact' that exists in the mind of the general public. It is also the means of establishing a controversy." During the 1990s, the tobacco campaign died away, and TASSC began taking funding from oil companies including Exxon. Its website became central in distributing "almost every kind of climate-change denial that has found its way into the popular press."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-requiem_83-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-requiem-83" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[83]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In the 1990s, the Marshall Institute began campaigning against increased regulations on environmental issues such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a>, second-hand smoke, and the dangers of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDT" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="DDT">DDT</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-marshall_76-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-marshall-76" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[76]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-requiem_83-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-requiem-83" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[83]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-merchants_of_doubt_79-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-merchants_of_doubt-79" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[79]</a></sup> In each case their argument was that the science was too uncertain to justify any government intervention, a strategy it borrowed from earlier efforts to downplay the health effects of tobacco in the 1980s.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-tobacco-approach_75-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-tobacco-approach-75" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[75]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-tobacco-docs_77-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-tobacco-docs-77" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[77]</a></sup> This campaign would continue for the next two decades.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-84" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-84" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[84]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">These efforts succeeded in influencing public perception of climate science.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-85" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[85]</a></sup> Between 1988 and the 1990s, public discourse shifted from the science and data of climate change to discussion of politics and surrounding controversy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-86" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-86" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[86]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The campaign to spread doubt continued into the 1990s, including an advertising campaign funded by <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_industry" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coal industry">coal industry</a> advocates intended to "reposition global warming as theory rather than fact",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-87" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-87" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[87]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-88" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-88" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[88]</a></sup> and a 1998 proposal written by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Petroleum Institute">American Petroleum Institute</a> intending to recruit scientists to convince politicians, the media and the public that climate science was too uncertain to warrant environmental regulation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-89" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-89" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[89]</a></sup> The proposal included a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US$" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="US$">US$</a> 5,000,000 multi-point strategy to "maximize the impact of scientific views consistent with ours on <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Congress" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="U.S. Congress">Congress</a>, the media and other key audiences", with a goal of "raising questions about and undercutting the 'prevailing scientific wisdom'".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-90" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-90" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[90]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 1998, Gelbspan noted that his fellow journalists accepted that global warming was occurring, but said they were in "'stage-two' denial of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_crisis" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate crisis">climate crisis</a>", unable to accept the feasibility of answers to the problem.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGelbspan19983,_35,_46,_197_91-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGelbspan19983,_35,_46,_197-91" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[91]</a></sup> A subsequent book by Milburn and Conrad on <i>The Politics of Denial</i> described "economic and psychological forces" producing denial of the consensus on global warming issues.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MilburnConrad1998_92-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-MilburnConrad1998-92" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[92]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">These efforts by climate change denial groups were recognized as an organized campaign beginning in the 2000s.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-93" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-93" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[93]</a></sup> The sociologists <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Riley_Dunlap&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #d73333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Riley Dunlap (page does not exist)">Riley Dunlap</a> and <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aaron_McCright&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #d73333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aaron McCright (page does not exist)">Aaron McCright</a> played a significant role in this shift when they published an article in 2000 exploring the connection between <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_think_tank" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Conservative think tank">conservative think tanks</a> and climate change denial.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-94" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-94" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[94]</a></sup> Later work would continue the argument specific groups were marshaling skepticism against climate change – a study in 2008 from the University of Central Florida analyzed the sources of "environmentally skeptical" literature published in the United States. The analysis demonstrated that 92% of the literature was partly or wholly affiliated with a self-proclaimed conservative think tanks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-95" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-95" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[95]</a></sup> A later piece of research from 2015 identified 4,556 individuals with overlapping network ties to 164 organizations which are responsible for the most efforts to downplay the threat of climate change in the U.S.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Eric_Roston_96-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Eric_Roston-96" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[96]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Justin_Farrell_97-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Justin_Farrell-97" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[97]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-size: 13.16px; max-width: 492px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 492px;"><div class="trow" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; display: flex; flex-flow: row wrap; width: 492px;"><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 209px; width: 209px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 155px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20220629_Public_estimates_of_scientific_consensus_on_climate_change_-_horizontal_bar_chart.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="384" data-file-width="512" decoding="async" height="155" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/20220629_Public_estimates_of_scientific_consensus_on_climate_change_-_horizontal_bar_chart.svg/207px-20220629_Public_estimates_of_scientific_consensus_on_climate_change_-_horizontal_bar_chart.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/20220629_Public_estimates_of_scientific_consensus_on_climate_change_-_horizontal_bar_chart.svg/311px-20220629_Public_estimates_of_scientific_consensus_on_climate_change_-_horizontal_bar_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/20220629_Public_estimates_of_scientific_consensus_on_climate_change_-_horizontal_bar_chart.svg/414px-20220629_Public_estimates_of_scientific_consensus_on_climate_change_-_horizontal_bar_chart.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="207" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">A 2022 study found that the public substantially underestimates the degree of scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-KingsCollegeReport_20220629_98-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-KingsCollegeReport_20220629-98" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[98]</a></sup> Studies from 2019–2021<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Powell_2019_99-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Powell_2019-99" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[99]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Lynas_2021_100-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Lynas_2021-100" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[100]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-101" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-101" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[101]</a></sup> found scientific consensus to range from 98.7–100%.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 279px; width: 279px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 155px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20220823_Public_underestimation_of_public_support_for_climate_action_-_poll_-_false_social_reality.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="675" data-file-width="1200" decoding="async" height="156" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/20220823_Public_underestimation_of_public_support_for_climate_action_-_poll_-_false_social_reality.svg/277px-20220823_Public_underestimation_of_public_support_for_climate_action_-_poll_-_false_social_reality.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/20220823_Public_underestimation_of_public_support_for_climate_action_-_poll_-_false_social_reality.svg/416px-20220823_Public_underestimation_of_public_support_for_climate_action_-_poll_-_false_social_reality.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/20220823_Public_underestimation_of_public_support_for_climate_action_-_poll_-_false_social_reality.svg/554px-20220823_Public_underestimation_of_public_support_for_climate_action_-_poll_-_false_social_reality.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="277" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">Research found that 80–90% of Americans underestimate the prevalence of support for major climate change mitigation policies and climate concern. While 66–80% Americans support these policies, Americans estimate the prevalence to be 37–43%. Researchers have called this misperception a <i>false social reality,</i> a form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralistic_ignorance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pluralistic ignorance">pluralistic ignorance</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NatureComms_20220823_102-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NatureComms_20220823-102" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[102]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-103" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-103" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[103]</a></sup></div></div></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Gelbspan's <i>Boiling Point</i>, published in 2004, detailed the fossil-fuel industry's campaign to deny climate change and undermine public confidence in climate science.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Gelbspan_2004_104-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Gelbspan_2004-104" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[104]</a></sup> In <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left: 0.1em; white-space: nowrap;">'s</span> August 2007 cover story "The Truth About Denial", <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Begley" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sharon Begley">Sharon Begley</a> reported that "the denial machine is running at full throttle", and said that this "well-coordinated, well-funded campaign" by contrarian scientists, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-market" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Free-market">free-market</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_tank" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Think tank">think tanks</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermajor" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Supermajor">industry</a> had "created a paralyzing fog of doubt around climate change."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Begley_machine_41-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Begley_machine-41" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[41]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Referencing work of sociologists Robert Antonio and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brulle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Robert Brulle">Robert Brulle</a>, Wayne A. White has written that climate change denial has become the top priority in a broader anti-environmental regulation agenda being pursued by <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoliberals" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Neoliberals">neoliberals</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-White2012_105-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-White2012-105" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[105]</a></sup> Today, climate change skepticism is most prominently seen in the United States, where the media disproportionately features views of the climate change denial community.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-106" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-106" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[106]</a></sup> In addition to the media, the contrarian movement has also been sustained by the growth of the internet, having gained some of its support from internet bloggers, talk radio hosts and newspaper columnists.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-107" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-107" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[107]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><i>The New York Times</i> and others reported in 2015 that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Petroleum industry">oil companies</a> knew that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Petroleum">burning oil and gas</a> could cause climate change and global warming since the 1970s but nonetheless funded deniers for years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NYT-20151105_26-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NYT-20151105-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[26]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-TG-20150708_27-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-TG-20150708-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[27]</a></sup> Dana Nuccitelli wrote in <i>The Guardian</i> that a small fringe group of climate deniers were no longer taken seriously at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference">2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference</a>, in an agreement that "we need to stop delaying and start getting serious about preventing a climate crisis."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-108" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-108" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[108]</a></sup> However, <i>The New York Times</i> says any implementation is voluntary and will depend on any future world leaders—and every Republican U.S. presidential candidate in 2016 questioned or denied the science of climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NYT-20151212_109-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NYT-20151212-109" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[109]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Ara%C3%BAjo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ernesto Araújo">Ernesto Araújo</a>, the new Minister of Foreign Affairs appointed by the newly elected president <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>'s president <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jair Bolsonaro">Jair Bolsonaro</a> has called global warming a plot by "<a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Marxists" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cultural Marxists">cultural Marxists</a>"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-110" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-110" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[110]</a></sup> and has eliminated the Climate Change Division of the ministry.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-111" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-111" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[111]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Alexandre Lopez-Borrull, a lecturer in Information and Communication Sciences at the Open University of Catalonia, noted in 2023 increases in climate change denial, particularly among supporters of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-right_politics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Far-right politics">far right</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PhysOrg_20230513_112-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-PhysOrg_20230513-112" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[112]</a></sup> Climate change deniers threatened <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorologist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Meteorologist">meteorologists</a>, accusing them of causing a drought, falsifying thermometer readings, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry-picking" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cherry-picking">cherry-picking</a> warmer weather stations to misrepresent global warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PhysOrg_20230513_112-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-PhysOrg_20230513-112" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[112]</a></sup> Also in 2023, CNN reported that meteorologists and climate communicators internationally were receiving increased harassment and false accusations that they are lying about or controlling the weather, inflating temperature records to make climate change seem worse, and changing color palettes of weather maps to make them look more dramatic.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CNN_20230527_113-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-CNN_20230527-113" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[113]</a></sup> Jennie King, head of Climate Research and Policy at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Strategic_Dialogue" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Institute for Strategic Dialogue">Institute for Strategic Dialogue</a>, said that growth of such conspiracy theories is "logical evolution of the broader trend around pushback on institutions" that supposedly are trying to "enact some insidious agenda".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CNN_20230527_113-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-CNN_20230527-113" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[113]</a></sup> Meanwhile, after <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elon_Musk" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a>'s 2022 takeover of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>, key figures in the company who ensured trusted content was prioritized were removed, and climate scientists received a large increase in hostile, threatening, harassing and personally abusive tweets from deniers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Guardian_20230514_114-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Guardian_20230514-114" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[114]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Denial_networks">Denial networks</span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States">United States</span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-denial_industry_115-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-denial_industry-115" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[115]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-book_industry_116-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-book_industry-116" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[116]</a></sup> In the 2016 United States election cycle, every <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> presidential candidate questioned or denied climate change, and opposed U.S. government steps to address climate change as has the Republican leader in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Senate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="U.S. Senate">U.S. Senate</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-117" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-117" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[117]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A Pentagon report has pointed out how climate change denial threatens <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_and_national_security" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change and national security">national security</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-118" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-118" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[118]</a></sup> A study from 2015 identified 4,556 individuals with overlapping network ties to 164 organizations which are responsible for the most efforts to downplay the threat of climate change in the U.S.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Eric_Roston_96-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Eric_Roston-96" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[96]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Justin_Farrell_97-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Justin_Farrell-97" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[97]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2013, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Media_and_Democracy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Center for Media and Democracy">Center for Media and Democracy</a> reported that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Policy_Network" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="State Policy Network">State Policy Network</a> (SPN), an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks, had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-119" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-119" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[119]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">According to an investigative report in the <i>Chronicle of Higher Education</i>, influential academic papers used to support climate change denialism were written by authors affiliated with Harvard, MIT, and Georgetown University who had undisclosed conflict of interest.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-120" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-120" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[120]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="International">International</span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The Clexit Coalition describes itself as: "A new international organisation [which] aims to prevent ratification of the costly and dangerous Paris global warming treaty".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-121" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-121" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[121]</a></sup> It has members in 26 countries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-122" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-122" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[122]</a></sup> According to <i>The Guardian</i>: "Clexit leaders are heavily involved in tobacco and fossil fuel-funded organizations".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-123" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-123" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[123]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span id="Publishers.2C_websites"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Publishers,_websites">Publishers, websites</span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In November 2021, a study by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Countering_Digital_Hate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Center for Countering Digital Hate">Center for Countering Digital Hate</a> identified "ten fringe publishers" that together were responsible for nearly 70 percent of Facebook user interactions with content that denied climate change. Facebook said the percentage was overstated and called the study misleading.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Porterfield_11/2/2021_124-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Porterfield_11/2/2021-124" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[124]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Toxic_Ten_11/2/2021_125-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Toxic_Ten_11/2/2021-125" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[125]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The "toxic ten" publishers: <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breitbart_News" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Breitbart News">Breitbart News</a></i>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Western_Journal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Western Journal">The Western Journal</a></i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsmax" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Newsmax">Newsmax</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townhall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Townhall">Townhall</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Research_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Media Research Center">Media Research Center</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Washington Times">The Washington Times</a></i>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Federalist_(website)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Federalist (website)">The Federalist</a></i>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Wire" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Daily Wire">The Daily Wire</a></i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT_(TV_network)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="RT (TV network)">RT (TV network)</a>, and <i>The Patriot Post</i>.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rebel_Media" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Rebel Media">The Rebel Media</a></i> and its director, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra_Levant" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ezra Levant">Ezra Levant</a>, have promoted climate change denial and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_sands" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oil sands">oil sands</a> extraction in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Graves_Beard_2019_p._176_126-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Graves_Beard_2019_p._176-126" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[126]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Craig_10/31/2016_127-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Craig_10/31/2016-127" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[127]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rowell_6/24/2017_128-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Rowell_6/24/2017-128" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[128]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kay_5/1/2017_129-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Kay_5/1/2017-129" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[129]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Arguments_and_positions_on_global_warming">Arguments and positions on global warming</span></h2><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2017_Global_warming_attribution_-_based_on_NCA4_Fig_3.3.png" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="4500" data-file-width="3193" decoding="async" height="352" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/2017_Global_warming_attribution_-_based_on_NCA4_Fig_3.3.png/250px-2017_Global_warming_attribution_-_based_on_NCA4_Fig_3.3.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/2017_Global_warming_attribution_-_based_on_NCA4_Fig_3.3.png/375px-2017_Global_warming_attribution_-_based_on_NCA4_Fig_3.3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/2017_Global_warming_attribution_-_based_on_NCA4_Fig_3.3.png/500px-2017_Global_warming_attribution_-_based_on_NCA4_Fig_3.3.png 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="250" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_National_Climate_Assessment" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fourth National Climate Assessment">Fourth National Climate Assessment</a> ("NCA4", U.S., 2017) includes charts<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4thNCA_130-0" style="font-size: 9.9008px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-4thNCA-130" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[130]</a></sup> illustrating how human factors—not various natural factors that have been investigated—are the predominant cause of observed global warming.</figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some climate change denial groups say that because CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> is only a trace gas in the atmosphere (roughly 400ppm, or 0.04%, 4 parts per 10,000) it can only have a minor effect on the climate. Scientists have known for over a century that even this small proportion has a significant warming effect, and doubling the proportion leads to a large temperature increase.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-trace_131-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-trace-131" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[131]</a></sup> The scientific consensus, as summarized by the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_fourth_assessment_report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC fourth assessment report">IPCC fourth assessment report</a>, the U.S. Geological Survey, and other reports, is that human activity is the leading cause of climate change. The burning of fossil fuels accounts for around 30 billion tons of CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> each year, which is 130 times the amount produced by volcanoes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-132" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-132" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[132]</a></sup> Some groups allege that water vapor is a more significant greenhouse gas, and is left out of many climate models.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-trace_131-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-trace-131" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[131]</a></sup> While water vapor is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>, the very short atmospheric lifetime of water vapor (about 10 days) compared to that of CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> (hundreds of years) means that CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> is the primary driver of increasing temperatures; water vapour acts as a feedback, not <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcing" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Radiative forcing">a forcing</a>, mechanism.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-133" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-133" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[133]</a></sup> Water vapor has been incorporated into climate models since their inception in the late 1800s.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-134" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-134" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[134]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate denial groups may also argue that global warming stopped recently, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_hiatus" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming hiatus">global warming hiatus</a>, or that global temperatures are actually decreasing, leading to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_cooling" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global cooling">global cooling</a>. These arguments are based on short term fluctuations, and ignore the long term pattern of warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-135" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-135" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[135]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">These groups often point to natural variability, such as sunspots and cosmic rays, to explain the warming trend.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-136" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-136" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[136]</a></sup> According to these groups, there is natural variability that will abate over time, and human influences have little to do with it. These factors are already taken into account when developing climate models, and the scientific consensus is that they cannot explain the observed warming trend.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-137" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-137" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[137]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">At a May 2018 meeting of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Science,_Space,_and_Technology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology">United States House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology</a>, Alabama's Representative <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo_Brooks" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mo Brooks">Mo Brooks</a> claimed that sea level rise is caused not by melting glaciers but rather by coastal erosion and silt that flows from rivers into the ocean.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-138" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-138" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[138]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate change denial literature often features the suggestion that we should wait for better technologies before addressing climate change, when they will be more affordable and effective.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-139" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-139" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[139]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Conspiracy_theories">Conspiracy theories</span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_conspiracy_theory" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change conspiracy theory">Climate change conspiracy theory</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inhofe_holding_snowball.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="480" data-file-width="480" decoding="async" height="220" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Inhofe_holding_snowball.jpg/220px-Inhofe_holding_snowball.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Inhofe_holding_snowball.jpg/330px-Inhofe_holding_snowball.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Inhofe_holding_snowball.jpg/440px-Inhofe_holding_snowball.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">Republican U.S. Senator <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Inhofe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jim Inhofe">Jim Inhofe</a> holds a snowball on the U.S. Senate floor to show that "it’s very, very cold out. Very unseasonable."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CNN_20150227_140-0" style="font-size: 9.9008px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-CNN_20150227-140" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[140]</a></sup> It was February 26, 2015.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CNN_20150227_140-1" style="font-size: 9.9008px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-CNN_20150227-140" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[140]</a></sup></figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Global warming conspiracy theories have been posited which allege that the scientific consensus is illusory, or that climatologists are acting on their own financial interests by causing undue alarm about a changing climate.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-141" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-141" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[141]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-plot_142-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-plot-142" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[142]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-143" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-143" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[143]</a></sup> Despite leaked emails during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climatic Research Unit email controversy">Climatic Research Unit email controversy</a>, as well as multinational, independent research on the topic, no evidence of such a conspiracy has been presented, and strong consensus exists among scientists from a multitude of political, social, organizational and national backgrounds about the extent and cause of climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-144" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-144" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[144]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6committees_145-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-6committees-145" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[145]</a></sup> Several researchers have concluded that around 97% of climate scientists agree with this consensus.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-146" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-146" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[146]</a></sup> As well, much of the data used in climate science is publicly available to be viewed and interpreted by competing researchers as well as the public.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-147" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-147" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[147]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2012, research by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Lewandowsky" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stephan Lewandowsky">Stephan Lewandowsky</a> (then of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Western_Australia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of Western Australia">University of Western Australia</a>) concluded that belief in other conspiracy theories, such as that the FBI was responsible for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr.#Alleged_government_involvement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, was associated with being more likely to endorse climate change denial.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-148" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-148" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[148]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In February 2015, climate change denier <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Inhofe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jim Inhofe">Jim Inhofe</a>, who had previously called climate change "the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people", claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax when he brought a snowball with him in the U.S. Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-149" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-149" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[149]</a></sup> He was succeeded in 2017 by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Barrasso" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="John Barrasso">John Barrasso</a>, who similarly said: "The climate is constantly changing. The role human activity plays is not known."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-150" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-150" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[150]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Donald Trump tweeted in 2012 that the Chinese invented "the concept of global warming" because they believed it would somehow hurt U.S. manufacturing. In late 2015, he called global warming a "hoax".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-151" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-151" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[151]</a></sup></p><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; float: right; font-size: 12.32px; margin: 0.5em 0px 0.8em 1.4em; max-width: 100%; padding: 10px; width: 220px;"><blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="border-left: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><table role="presentation" style="font-size: 12.32px; line-height: 1em; margin-top: 0px; width: 247px;"><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-right: 5px; width: 28px;"><div style="border-radius: 50%; height: 28px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; width: 28px;"><figure class="mw-halign-left" style="clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 0.5em 0.5em 0px;" typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marjorie_Taylor_Greene_117th_Congress_portrait.jpeg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="4200" data-file-width="3305" decoding="async" height="36" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Marjorie_Taylor_Greene_117th_Congress_portrait.jpeg/28px-Marjorie_Taylor_Greene_117th_Congress_portrait.jpeg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Marjorie_Taylor_Greene_117th_Congress_portrait.jpeg/42px-Marjorie_Taylor_Greene_117th_Congress_portrait.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Marjorie_Taylor_Greene_117th_Congress_portrait.jpeg/56px-Marjorie_Taylor_Greene_117th_Congress_portrait.jpeg 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="28" /></a></figure></div></td><th style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap;">Rep. Marjorie Taylor Greene</th><td style="color: #4c545c; text-align: right;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Twitter">Twitter</a></td></tr><tr><td style="color: #4c545c; white-space: nowrap;">@RepMTG</td></tr></tbody></table><div style="color: #1c2022;"><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">We live on a spinning planet that rotates around a much bigger sun along with other planets and heavenly bodies rotating around the sun that all create gravitational pull on one another while our galaxy rotates and travels through the universe. Considering all of that, yes our climate will change, and it's totally normal! ... Don’t fall for the scam, fossil fuels are natural and amazing.</p></div><div style="color: #4c545c; margin-bottom: 0px;"><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Apr 15, 2023<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-TweetRepMTG_152-0" style="font-size: 9.856px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-TweetRepMTG-152" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[152]</a></sup></p></div></blockquote></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">An April 15, 2023 tweet by Republican U.S. Representative <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marjorie_Taylor_Greene" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marjorie Taylor Greene">Marjorie Taylor Greene</a> said climate change was a "scam" and that "fossil fuels are natural and amazing", saying that "there are some very powerful people that are getting rich beyond their wildest dreams convincing many that carbon is the enemy".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MTG_tweet_20230415_153-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-MTG_tweet_20230415-153" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[153]</a></sup> Her tweet included a chart that omitted carbon dioxide and methane<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MTG_tweet_20230415_153-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-MTG_tweet_20230415-153" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[153]</a></sup>—the two most dominant greenhouse gas emissions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-EPA_GHGs_154-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-EPA_GHGs-154" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[154]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Taxonomy_of_climate_change_denial">Taxonomy of climate change denial</span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_climate_change_denial" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Soft climate change denial">Soft climate change denial</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:5_characteristics_of_science_denial.svg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="268" data-file-width="512" decoding="async" height="173" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/5_characteristics_of_science_denial.svg/330px-5_characteristics_of_science_denial.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/5_characteristics_of_science_denial.svg/495px-5_characteristics_of_science_denial.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/5_characteristics_of_science_denial.svg/660px-5_characteristics_of_science_denial.svg.png 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="330" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">Characteristics of science denial (including climate science denial)</figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2004, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Rahmstorf" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stefan Rahmstorf">Stefan Rahmstorf</a> described how the media give the misleading impression that climate change was still disputed within the scientific community, attributing this impression to PR efforts of climate change skeptics. He identified different positions argued by climate skeptics, which he used as a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomy</a> of climate change skepticism:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rahmstorf_2004_155-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Rahmstorf_2004-155" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[155]</a></sup> (Later the model was also applied on denial.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-auto_156-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-auto-156" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[156]</a></sup>)</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><ol style="list-style-image: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Trend sceptics or deniers (who deny there is global warming), [and] argue that no significant climate warming is taking place at all, claiming that the warming trend measured by weather stations is an artefact due to urbanisation around those stations ("<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_heat_island" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island</a> effect").</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Attribution sceptics or deniers (who accept the global warming trend but see natural causes for this), [and] doubt that human activities are responsible for the observed trends. A few of them even deny that the rise in the atmospheric CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> content is anthropogenic [while others argue that] additional CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> does not lead to discernible warming [and] that there must be other—natural—causes for warming.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Impact sceptics or deniers (who think global warming is harmless or even beneficial).<div class="templatequotecite" style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-top: 0px; padding-left: 1.6em;">— <cite style="font-style: inherit;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-auto_156-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-auto-156" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[156]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rahmstorf_2004_155-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Rahmstorf_2004-155" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[155]</a></sup></cite></div></li></ol></blockquote><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">This taxonomy has been used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Social science">social science</a> for analysis of publications, and to categorize climate change skepticism and climate change denial.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-157" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-157" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[157]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Dunlap_Jacques_2013_p._702_158-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Dunlap_Jacques_2013_p._702-158" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[158]</a></sup> Sometimes, a fourth category called "consensus denial" is added, which describes people who question the existence of the scientific consensus on anthropogenic global warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-auto_156-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-auto-156" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[156]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The National Center for Science Education describes climate change denial as disputing differing points in the scientific consensus, a sequential range of arguments from denying the occurrence of climate change, accepting that but denying any significant human contribution, accepting these but denying scientific findings on how this would affect nature and human society, to accepting all these but denying that humans can mitigate or reduce the problems.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ncse-pillars_9-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-ncse-pillars-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_L._Powell" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="James L. Powell">James L. Powell</a> provides a more extended list,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Powell2012_11-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Powell2012-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> as does climatologist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_E._Mann" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Michael E. Mann">Michael E. Mann</a> in "six stages of denial", a ladder model whereby deniers have over time conceded acceptance of points, while retreating to a position which still rejects the mainstream consensus:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Mann2013p23_159-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Mann2013p23-159" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[159]</a></sup></p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><ol style="list-style-image: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> is not actually increasing.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Even if it is, the increase has no impact on the climate since there is no convincing evidence of warming.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Even if there is warming, it is due to natural causes.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Even if the warming cannot be explained by natural causes, the human impact is small, and the impact of continued greenhouse gas emissions will be minor.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Even if the current and future projected human effects on Earth's climate are not negligible, the changes are generally going to be good for us.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Whether or not the changes are going to be good for us, humans are very adept at adapting to changes; besides, it's too late to do anything about it, and/or a technological fix is bound to come along when we really need it.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Mann2013p23_159-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Mann2013p23-159" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[159]</a></sup></li></ol></blockquote><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Journalists and newspaper columnists including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Monbiot" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="George Monbiot">George Monbiot</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-denial_ind_guardian_160-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-denial_ind_guardian-160" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[160]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-goodman_161-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-goodman-161" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[161]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-semantics_guardian_162-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-semantics_guardian-162" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[162]</a></sup> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Goodman" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ellen Goodman">Ellen Goodman</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-goodman_161-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-goodman-161" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[161]</a></sup> among others,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Christoff_163-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Christoff-163" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[163]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ConnellyHarm_164-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-ConnellyHarm-164" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[164]</a></sup> have described climate change denial as a form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Denialism">denialism</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NewsweekTimeline_165-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NewsweekTimeline-165" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[165]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Denialism">Denialism</a> in this context has been defined by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Hoofnagle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chris Hoofnagle">Chris and</a> Mark Hoofnagle as the use of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorical_device" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rhetorical device">rhetorical devices</a> "to give the appearance of legitimate debate where there is none, an approach that has the ultimate goal of rejecting a proposition on which a scientific consensus exists." This process characteristically uses one or more of the following tactics:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Diethelm_McKee_7-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Diethelm_McKee-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[7]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Liu_166-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Liu-166" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[166]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Mark_Hoofnagle_Graun09_167-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Mark_Hoofnagle_Graun09-167" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[167]</a></sup></p><ol style="list-style-image: none; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Allegations that scientific consensus involves conspiring to fake data or suppress the truth: a global warming conspiracy theory.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Fake experts, or individuals with views at odds with established knowledge, at the same time marginalising or denigrating published topic experts. Like the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubt_Is_Their_Product" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doubt Is Their Product">manufactured doubt over smoking and health</a>, a few contrarian scientists oppose the climate consensus, some of them <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchants_of_Doubt" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Merchants of Doubt">the same individuals</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Selectivity, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_picking" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cherry picking">cherry picking</a> atypical or even obsolete papers, in the same way that the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMR_vaccine_controversy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="MMR vaccine controversy">MMR vaccine controversy</a> was based on one paper: examples include discredited ideas of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_warm_period" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Medieval warm period">medieval warm period</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Mark_Hoofnagle_Graun09_167-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Mark_Hoofnagle_Graun09-167" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[167]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Unworkable demands of research, claiming that any uncertainty invalidates the field or exaggerating uncertainty while rejecting probabilities and mathematical models.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_fallacy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Formal fallacy">Logical fallacies</a>.</li></ol><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2015, environmentalist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_McKibben" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bill McKibben">Bill McKibben</a> accused <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_Obama" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="President Obama">President Obama</a> (widely regarded as strongly in favour of action on climate change<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-168" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-168" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[168]</a></sup>) of "Catastrophic Climate-Change Denial", for his approval of oil-drilling permits in offshore Alaska. According to McKibben, the President has also "opened huge swaths of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder_River_basin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Powder River basin">Powder River basin</a> to new coal mining." McKibben calls this "climate denial of the status quo sort", where the President denies "the meaning of the science, which is that we must keep carbon in the ground."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-169" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-169" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[169]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A study assessed the public perception and actions to climate change, on grounds of belief systems, and identified seven psychological barriers affecting the behavior that otherwise would facilitate mitigation, adaptation, and environmental stewardship. The author found the following barriers: cognition, ideological world views, comparisons to key people, costs and momentum, discredence toward experts and authorities, perceived risks of change, and inadequate behavioral changes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-170" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-170" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[170]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-171" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-171" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[171]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</span></h2><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20200327_Climate_change_deniers_cherry_picking_time_periods.gif" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="800" data-file-width="1200" decoding="async" height="167" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20200327_Climate_change_deniers_cherry_picking_time_periods.gif/250px-20200327_Climate_change_deniers_cherry_picking_time_periods.gif" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20200327_Climate_change_deniers_cherry_picking_time_periods.gif/375px-20200327_Climate_change_deniers_cherry_picking_time_periods.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/20200327_Climate_change_deniers_cherry_picking_time_periods.gif/500px-20200327_Climate_change_deniers_cherry_picking_time_periods.gif 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="250" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">One deceptive approach is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_picking" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cherry picking">cherry picking</a> data from short time periods to assert that global average temperatures are not rising. <span style="color: blue;">Blue trendlines</span> show short-term countertrends that mask longer-term warming trends that are shown by <span style="color: red;">red trendlines</span>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Grist_20111107_172-0" style="font-size: 9.9008px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Grist_20111107-172" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[172]</a></sup> Such representations have been applied to the so-called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_hiatus" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming hiatus">global warming hiatus</a> (<span style="color: blue;">blue dots</span>, 1998–2013).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AtomicSci+2014_173-0" style="font-size: 9.9008px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-AtomicSci+2014-173" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[173]</a></sup></figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Various groups, including the National Center for Science Education, have described climate change denial as a form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSE_174-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSE-174" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[174]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Lahsen_175-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Lahsen-175" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[175]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-BrownM_176-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-BrownM-176" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[176]</a></sup> Climate change skepticism, while in some cases professing to do research on climate change, has focused instead on influencing the opinion of the public, legislators and the media, in contrast to legitimate science.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-177" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-177" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[177]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In a review of the book <i>The Pseudoscience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern Fringe</i> by Michael D. Gordin, David Morrison wrote:</p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><p style="margin: 0px;">In his final chapter, Gordin turns to the new phase of pseudoscience, practiced by a few rogue scientists themselves. Climate change denialism is the prime example, where a handful of scientists, allied with an effective PR machine, are publicly challenging the scientific consensus that global warming is real and is due primarily to human consumption of fossil fuels. Scientists have watched in disbelief that as the evidence for global warming has become ever more solid, the deniers have been increasingly successful in the public and political arena. ... Today pseudoscience is still with us, and is as dangerous a challenge to science as it ever was in the past.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Morrison_178-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Morrison-178" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[178]</a></sup></p></blockquote><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="False_beliefs">False beliefs</span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Explaining the techniques of science denial and misinformation, by presenting "examples of people using cherrypicking or fake experts or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_balance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="False balance">false balance</a> to mislead the public", has been shown to inoculate people somewhat against misinformation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-179" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-179" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[179]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-180" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-180" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[180]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-181" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-181" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[181]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Dialogue focused on the question of how belief differs from scientific theory may provide useful insights into how the scientific method works, and how beliefs may have strong or minimal supporting evidence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-182" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-182" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[182]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-183" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-183" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[183]</a></sup> Wong-Parodi's survey of the literature shows four effective approaches to dialogue, including "[encouraging] people to openly share their values and stance on climate change before introducing actual scientific climate information into the discussion."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-184" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-184" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[184]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Emotional_and_psychological_aspects">Emotional and psychological aspects</span></h2><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Psychology of climate change denial">Psychology of climate change denial</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The director of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Program_on_Climate_Change_Communication" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Yale Program on Climate Change Communication">Yale Program on Climate Change Communication</a> said that one "almost couldn't design a worse fit for our underlying psychology or our institutions of decision-making" than dealing with climate change—owing primarily to the short-term focus of humans and their institutions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NPR_20230104_185-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NPR_20230104-185" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[185]</a></sup> Florida Republican <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Lee_(Florida_politician)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tom Lee (Florida politician)">Tom Lee</a> described the emotional impact and reactions of individuals to climate change, saying "If these predictions do bear out, that it's just economically daunting. ... That's why I use the term emotionally shut down, because I think you lose people at hello a lot of times in the Republican conversation over this."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-186" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-186" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[186]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Personal reactions to climate change may include anxiety, depression, despair, dissonance, uncertainty, insecurity, and distress, with one psychologist suggesting that "despair about our changing climate may get in the way of fixing it."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-187" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-187" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[187]</a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a> has urged psychologists and other social scientists to work on psychological barriers to taking action on climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-188" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-188" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[188]</a></sup> The immediacy of a growing number of extreme weather events, and tax incentives for energy efficiency and for purchasing electric vehicles, are thought to motivate people to deal with climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NPR_20230104_185-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NPR_20230104-185" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[185]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A study published in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLOS" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PLOS">PLOS Climate</a></i> studied defensive and secure forms of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_identity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National identity">national identity</a>—respectively called "national narcissism"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NationalNarcissism_189-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NationalNarcissism-189" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[Note 1]</a></sup> and "secure national identification"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SecureNationalIdentification_190-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-SecureNationalIdentification-190" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[Note 2]</a></sup>—for their correlation to support for policies to mitigate climate change and to transition to renewable energy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PLOSClimate_20230608_191-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-PLOSClimate_20230608-191" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[189]</a></sup> The researchers concluded that secure national identification tends to support policies promoting renewable energy; however, national narcissism was found to be inversely correlated with support for such policies—except to the extent that such policies, as well as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwashing" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenwashing">greenwashing</a>, enhance the national <i>image</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PLOSClimate_20230608_191-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-PLOSClimate_20230608-191" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[189]</a></sup> Right-wing political orientation, which may indicate susceptibility to climate conspiracy beliefs, was also concluded to be negatively correlated with support for genuine climate mitigation policies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PLOSClimate_20230608_191-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-PLOSClimate_20230608-191" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[189]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span id="Responding_to_climate_denial_.E2.80.93_the_role_of_emotions_and_persuasive_argument"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Responding_to_climate_denial_–_the_role_of_emotions_and_persuasive_argument">Responding to climate denial – the role of emotions and persuasive argument</span></h3><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-size: 13.16px; max-width: 442px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 442px;"><div class="trow" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; display: flex; flex-flow: row wrap; width: 442px;"><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 257px; width: 257px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 143px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20230321_Effectiveness_of_techniques_to_motivate_climate_mitigation_action_-_bar_chart.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="675" data-file-width="1200" decoding="async" height="143" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/20230321_Effectiveness_of_techniques_to_motivate_climate_mitigation_action_-_bar_chart.svg/255px-20230321_Effectiveness_of_techniques_to_motivate_climate_mitigation_action_-_bar_chart.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/20230321_Effectiveness_of_techniques_to_motivate_climate_mitigation_action_-_bar_chart.svg/383px-20230321_Effectiveness_of_techniques_to_motivate_climate_mitigation_action_-_bar_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/20230321_Effectiveness_of_techniques_to_motivate_climate_mitigation_action_-_bar_chart.svg/510px-20230321_Effectiveness_of_techniques_to_motivate_climate_mitigation_action_-_bar_chart.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="255" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">Presenting data and other facts is less effective in motivating people to act to mitigate climate change, than financial incentives and social pressure involved in showing people climate-related actions of other people.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PNAS_20230321_192-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-PNAS_20230321-192" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[190]</a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 181px; width: 181px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 143px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20230612_Predictors_of_changing_opinions_about_global_warming_-_survey.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1000" data-file-width="1250" decoding="async" height="143" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/20230612_Predictors_of_changing_opinions_about_global_warming_-_survey.svg/179px-20230612_Predictors_of_changing_opinions_about_global_warming_-_survey.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/20230612_Predictors_of_changing_opinions_about_global_warming_-_survey.svg/269px-20230612_Predictors_of_changing_opinions_about_global_warming_-_survey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/20230612_Predictors_of_changing_opinions_about_global_warming_-_survey.svg/358px-20230612_Predictors_of_changing_opinions_about_global_warming_-_survey.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="179" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">The strongest factors in self-reported changes in opinion about global warming were Republican party identification, seeing others experience impacts of global warming, and learning more about global warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ClimateComms_193-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-ClimateComms_-193" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[191]</a></sup></div></div></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">An <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Irish Times"><i>Irish Times</i></a> article notes that climate denial "is not simply overcome by reasoned argument", because it is not a rational response. Attempting to overcome denial using techniques of persuasive argument, such as supplying a missing piece of information, or providing general scientific education may be ineffective. A person who is in denial about climate is most likely taking a position based on their feelings, especially their feelings about things they fear.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Irish_Times_194-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Irish_Times-194" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[192]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Lewandowsky has stated that "It is pretty clear that fear of the solutions drives much opposition to the science."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-phys.org_195-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-phys.org-195" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[193]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">It can be useful to respond to emotions, including with the statement "It can be painful to realise that our own lifestyles are responsible", in order to help move "from denial to acceptance to constructive action."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Irish_Times_194-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Irish_Times-194" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[192]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-196" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-196" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[194]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-197" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-197" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[195]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Farmers_and_climate_denial">Farmers and climate denial</span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Seeing positive economic results from efforts at climate-friendly agricultural practices, or becoming involved in intergenerational stewardship of a farm may play a role in turning farmers away from denial. One study of climate change denial among farmers in Australia found that farmers were less likely to take a position of climate denial if they had experienced improved production from climate-friendly practices, or identified a younger person as a successor for their farm.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-198" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-198" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[196]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In the United States, rural climate dialogues sponsored by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Club" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sierra Club">Sierra Club</a> have helped neighbors overcome their fears of political polarization and exclusion, and come together to address shared concerns about climate impacts in their communities. Some participants who start out with attitudes of anthropogenic climate change denial have shifted to identifying concerns which they would like to see addressed by local officials.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-199" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-199" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[197]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="People_who_have_changed_their_position">People who have changed their position</span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">"I used to be a climate-change skeptic", conservative columnist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Boot" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Max Boot">Max Boot</a> admitted in 2018, one who believed that "the science was inconclusive" and that worry was "overblown". Now, he says, referencing the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_National_Climate_Assessment" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fourth National Climate Assessment">Fourth National Climate Assessment</a>, "the scientific consensus is so clear and convincing."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-200" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-200" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[198]</a></sup> Climate change doubter <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Inglis" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bob Inglis">Bob Inglis</a>, a former US representative for South Carolina, changed his mind after appeals from his son on his environmental positions, and after spending time with climate scientist Scott Heron studying <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleaching" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>. Inglis lost his House race in 2010, and went on to found republicEn, a nonprofit promoting conservative voices and solutions on climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-201" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-201" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[199]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Taylor" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jerry Taylor">Jerry Taylor</a> promoted climate denialism for 20 years as former staff director for the energy and environment task force at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Legislative_Exchange_Council" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Legislative Exchange Council">American Legislative Exchange Council</a> (ALEC) and former vice president of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. Taylor began to change his mind after climate scientist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hansen" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a> challenged him to reread some Senate testimony. He became President of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niskanen_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Niskanen Center">Niskanen Center</a> in 2014, where he is involved in turning climate skeptics into climate activists, and making the business case for climate action.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-202" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-202" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[200]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-203" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-203" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[201]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-204" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-204" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[202]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2009, Russian president <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dmitry Medvedev">Dmitri Medvedev</a> expressed his opinion that climate change was "some kind of tricky campaign made up by some commercial structures to promote their business projects". After the devastating <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Russian_wildfires" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="2010 Russian wildfires">2010 Russian wildfires</a> damaged agriculture and left Moscow choking in smoke, Medvedev commented, "Unfortunately, what is happening now in our central regions is evidence of this global climate change."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-The_Week_205-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-The_Week-205" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[203]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Shermer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a>, the publisher of <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptic_(U.S._magazine)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skeptic (U.S. magazine)">Skeptic</a></i> magazine, reached a tipping point in 2006 as a result of his increasing familiarity with scientific evidence, and decided there was "overwhelming evidence for anthropogenic global warming". Journalist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregg_Easterbrook" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gregg Easterbrook">Gregg Easterbrook</a>, an early skeptic of climate change who authored the influential book <i>A Moment on the Earth</i>, also changed his mind in 2006, and wrote an essay titled "Case Closed: The Debate About Global Warming is Over".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-The_Week_205-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-The_Week-205" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[203]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weather_Channel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Weather Channel">Weather Channel</a> senior <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorologist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Meteorologist">meteorologist</a> Stu Ostro expressed skepticism or cynicism about anthropogenic global warming for some years, but by 2010, he had become involved in explaining the connections between man-made climate change and extreme weather.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-The_Week_205-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-The_Week-205" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[203]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_A._Muller" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Richard A. Muller">Richard A. Muller</a>, professor of physics at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and the co-founder of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Earth" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Berkeley Earth">Berkeley Earth</a> Surface Temperature project, funded by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koch_family_foundations" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Koch family foundations">Charles Koch Charitable Foundation</a>, has been a prominent critic of prevailing climate science. In 2011, he stated that "following an intensive research effort involving a dozen scientists, I concluded that global warming was real and that the prior estimates of the rate of warming were correct. I'm now going a step further: Humans are almost entirely the cause."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-206" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-206" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[204]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Funding">Funding</span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Between 2002 and 2010, the combined annual income of 91 climate change counter-movement organizations—think tanks, advocacy groups and industry associations—was roughly $900 million.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-207" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-207" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[205]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-208" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-208" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[206]</a></sup> During the same period, billionaires secretively donated nearly $120 million (£77 million) via the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donors_Trust" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Donors Trust">Donors Trust</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donors_Capital_Fund" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Donors Capital Fund">Donors Capital Fund</a> to more than 100 organizations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-209" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-209" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[207]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-210" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-210" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[208]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">As of the end of 2019, in the United States, 97 percent of the coal industry's political contributions and 88 percent of the oil and gas industries' contributions had gone to Republicans,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-211" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-211" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[209]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-212" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-212" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[210]</a></sup> leading economist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Krugman" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> to call the Republicans "the world's only major climate-denialist party".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-213" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-213" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[211]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Public_opinion">Public opinion</span></h2><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion on climate change</a></div><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-size: 13.16px; max-width: 492px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 492px;"><div class="trow" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; display: flex; flex-flow: row wrap; width: 492px;"><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 231px; width: 231px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 319px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2021_Public_opinion_on_climate_change_-_Yale_Program_on_Climate_Change_Communication.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1675" data-file-width="1200" decoding="async" height="320" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/2021_Public_opinion_on_climate_change_-_Yale_Program_on_Climate_Change_Communication.svg/229px-2021_Public_opinion_on_climate_change_-_Yale_Program_on_Climate_Change_Communication.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/2021_Public_opinion_on_climate_change_-_Yale_Program_on_Climate_Change_Communication.svg/344px-2021_Public_opinion_on_climate_change_-_Yale_Program_on_Climate_Change_Communication.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/2021_Public_opinion_on_climate_change_-_Yale_Program_on_Climate_Change_Communication.svg/458px-2021_Public_opinion_on_climate_change_-_Yale_Program_on_Climate_Change_Communication.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="229" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">Results of a Yale Climate Connection-reported survey in 31 countries of public opinion, specifically among Facebook users, on the causes of climate change<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-YaleCC_survey2021_214-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-YaleCC_survey2021-214" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[212]</a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 257px; width: 257px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 319px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20210126_Peoples%27_Climate_Vote_-_Public_belief_in_climate_emergency_-_United_Nations_Development_Programme.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1500" data-file-width="1200" decoding="async" height="319" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/20210126_Peoples%27_Climate_Vote_-_Public_belief_in_climate_emergency_-_United_Nations_Development_Programme.svg/255px-20210126_Peoples%27_Climate_Vote_-_Public_belief_in_climate_emergency_-_United_Nations_Development_Programme.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/20210126_Peoples%27_Climate_Vote_-_Public_belief_in_climate_emergency_-_United_Nations_Development_Programme.svg/383px-20210126_Peoples%27_Climate_Vote_-_Public_belief_in_climate_emergency_-_United_Nations_Development_Programme.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/20210126_Peoples%27_Climate_Vote_-_Public_belief_in_climate_emergency_-_United_Nations_Development_Programme.svg/510px-20210126_Peoples%27_Climate_Vote_-_Public_belief_in_climate_emergency_-_United_Nations_Development_Programme.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="255" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">Results of a survey overseen by the United Nations Development Programme on belief in whether climate change presents a climate emergency<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-UNsurvey_202101_215-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-UNsurvey_202101-215" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[213]</a></sup></div></div></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Public opinion on climate change is significantly affected by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Media coverage of climate change">media coverage of climate change</a>, and the effects of climate change denial campaigns. Campaigns to undermine public confidence in climate science have decreased public belief in climate change, which in turn have affected legislative efforts to curb CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> emissions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-disinformation_216-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-disinformation-216" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[214]</a></sup> Another reason why the public is skeptical about climate change is their lack of knowledge.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Matthews_153–168_217-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Matthews_153%E2%80%93168-217" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[215]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States_2">United States</span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Further information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change policy of the United States">Climate change policy of the United States</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In a 2006 ABC News/Time/Stanford Poll, 56% of Americans correctly answered that average global temperatures had risen over the previous three years. However, in the same poll, two-thirds said they believed that scientists had "a lot of disagreement" about "whether or not global warming is happening".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-218" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-218" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[216]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">From 2001 to 2012, the number of Americans who said they believe in anthropogenic global warming decreased from 75 percent to 44 percent.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-219" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-219" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[217]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-size: 13.16px; max-width: 492px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 492px;"><div class="trow" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; display: flex; flex-flow: row wrap; width: 492px;"><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 209px; width: 209px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 155px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="750" data-file-width="1000" decoding="async" height="155" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg/207px-202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg/311px-202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg/414px-202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="207" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> have long differed in views of climate change, with the gap widening in the late 2010s,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PewSurvey_2020_220-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-PewSurvey_2020-220" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[218]</a></sup> with Democrats three times more likely to view it as human-caused.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Gallup_20230420_221-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Gallup_20230420-221" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[219]</a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 279px; width: 279px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 155px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="675" data-file-width="1200" decoding="async" height="156" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg/277px-2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg/416px-2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg/554px-2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="277" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">The sharp divide over the existence of and responsibility for global warming and climate change falls largely along political lines.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Guardian_20211026_222-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Guardian_20211026-222" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[220]</a></sup> Overall, 60% of Americans surveyed said oil and gas companies were "completely or mostly responsible" for climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Guardian_20211026_222-1" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Guardian_20211026-222" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[220]</a></sup></div></div></div></div></div><div class="thumb tmulti tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-size: 13.16px; max-width: 492px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 492px;"><div class="trow" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; display: flex; flex-flow: row wrap; width: 492px;"><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 252px; width: 252px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 156px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="750" data-file-width="1200" decoding="async" height="156" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg/250px-20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg/375px-20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg/500px-20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="250" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">Opinion about human causation of climate change increased substantially with education among Democrats, but not among Republicans.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pew_20220301_223-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Pew_20220301-223" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[221]</a></sup> Conversely, opinions favoring becoming carbon neutral declined substantially with age among Republicans, but not among Democrats.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pew_20220301_223-1" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Pew_20220301-223" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[221]</a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="float: left; margin: 1px; max-width: 236px; width: 236px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: 156px; overflow: hidden;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="800" data-file-width="1200" decoding="async" height="156" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg/234px-20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg/351px-20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg/468px-20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="234" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;">National political divides on the seriousness of climate change consistently correlate with political ideology, with right-wing opinion being more negative.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pew_20220831_224-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Pew_20220831-224" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[222]</a></sup></div></div></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A study found that public climate change policy support and behavior are significantly influenced by public beliefs, attitudes and risk perceptions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-225" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-225" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[223]</a></sup> As of March 2018 the rate of acceptance among U.S. TV forecasters that the climate is changing has increased to ninety-five percent. The number of local television stories about global warming has also increased, by fifteen-fold. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_Central" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate Central">Climate Central</a> has received some of the credit for this because they provide classes for meteorologists and graphics for television stations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-226" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-226" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[224]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The popular media in the U.S. gives greater attention to climate change skeptics than the scientific community as a whole, and the level of agreement within the scientific community has not been accurately communicated.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-227" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-227" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[225]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-228" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-228" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[226]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-229" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-229" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[227]</a></sup> In some cases, news outlets have allowed climate change skeptics to explain the science of climate change instead of experts in climatology.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-230" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-230" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[228]</a></sup> US and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="UK">UK</a> media coverage differ from that presented in other countries, where reporting is more consistent with the scientific literature.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-231" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-231" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[229]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-232" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-232" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[230]</a></sup> Some journalists attribute the difference to climate change denial being propagated, mainly in the US, by business-centered organizations employing tactics worked out previously by the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_lobby" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco lobby">US tobacco lobby</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-tobacco-approach_75-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-tobacco-approach-75" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[75]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-233" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-233" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[231]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-234" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-234" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[232]</a></sup> In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="France">France</a>, the US and the UK, the opinions of climate change skeptics appear much more frequently in conservative news outlets than other news, and in many cases those opinions are left uncontested.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-235" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-235" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[233]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The efforts of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Gore" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> and other environmental campaigns have focused on the effects of global warming and have managed to increase awareness and concern, but despite these efforts, the number of Americans believing humans are the cause of global warming was holding steady at 61% in 2007, and those believing the popular media was understating the issue remained about 35%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Saad2007HollywoodHeathUpConcern_236-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Saad2007HollywoodHeathUpConcern-236" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[234]</a></sup> A recent poll from 2015 suggests that while Americans are growing more aware of the dangers and implications of climate change for future generations, the majority are not worried about it.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-237" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-237" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[235]</a></sup> From a survey conducted in 2004, it was found that more than 30% of news presented in the previous decade showed equal attention to both human and non human contributions to global warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-238" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-238" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[236]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2018, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Teachers_Association" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Science Teachers Association">National Science Teachers Association</a> urged teachers to "emphasize to students that no scientific controversy exists regarding the basic facts of climate change."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-239" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-239" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[237]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Europe">Europe</span></h3><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20210824_Survey_-_climate_change_impact_on_daily_life_-_European_Investment_Bank.svg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="750" data-file-width="1000" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/20210824_Survey_-_climate_change_impact_on_daily_life_-_European_Investment_Bank.svg/220px-20210824_Survey_-_climate_change_impact_on_daily_life_-_European_Investment_Bank.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/20210824_Survey_-_climate_change_impact_on_daily_life_-_European_Investment_Bank.svg/330px-20210824_Survey_-_climate_change_impact_on_daily_life_-_European_Investment_Bank.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/20210824_Survey_-_climate_change_impact_on_daily_life_-_European_Investment_Bank.svg/440px-20210824_Survey_-_climate_change_impact_on_daily_life_-_European_Investment_Bank.svg.png 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">At least 72% of Chinese, American and European respondents to a 2020−2021 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Investment_Bank" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="European Investment Bank">European Investment Bank</a> climate survey stated that climate change had an impact on everyday life.</figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate change denial has been promoted by several far-right European parties, including Spain's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vox (political party)">Vox</a>, Finland's far-right <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finns_Party" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Finns Party">Finns Party</a>, Austria's far-right <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Austria" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Freedom Party of Austria">Freedom Party</a>, and Germany's anti-immigration <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alternative for Germany">Alternative for Deutschland</a> (AfD).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-240" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-240" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[238]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In April 2023, French political scientist Jean-Yves Dormagen indicates that it is the modest and conservative classes that are the most restive, and therefore climate-skeptical, to climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-241" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-241" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[239]</a></sup> In a study by the Jean-Jaurès Foundation published the same month, climate skepticism is compared to a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_populism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New populism">new populism</a> whose representative lately would be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_E._Koonin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Steven E. Koonin">Steven E. Koonin</a>, as well as for others their spokesman.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-242" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-242" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[240]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-243" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-243" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[241]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Nationalism">Nationalism</span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">It has been suggested that climate change can conflict with a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nationalism">nationalistic</a> view because it is "unsolvable" at the national level and requires collective action between nations or between local communities, and that therefore populist nationalism tends to reject the science of climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-244" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-244" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[242]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TED_talk" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="TED talk">TED talk</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuval_Noah_Harari" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Yuval Noah Harari">Yuval Noah Harari</a> notes:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-245" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-245" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[243]</a></sup></p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><p style="margin: 0px;">nationalism has no solution to climate change. If you want to be a nationalist in the 21st century, you have to deny the problem. If you accept the reality of the problem, then you must accept that, yes, there is still room in the world for patriotism, there is still room in the world for having special loyalties and obligations towards your own people, towards your own country. I don't think anybody is really thinking of abolishing that. But in order to confront climate change, we need additional loyalties and commitments to a level beyond the nation.</p></blockquote><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2019, U.S. Undersecretary of Energy <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Menezes" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mark Menezes">Mark W. Menezes</a> said that the Freeport LNG project's exports would be "spreading freedom gas throughout the world", while Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Winberg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Steven Winberg">Steven Winberg</a> echoed the call to internationally export "molecules of US freedom".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-246" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-246" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[244]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">On the other hand, it has been argued that effective climate action is polycentric rather than international, and national interest in multilateral groups can be furthered by overcoming climate change denial.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-247" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-247" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[245]</a></sup> Climate change contrarians may believe in a "caricature" of internationalist state intervention that is perceived as threatening national sovereignty, and may re-attribute risks such as flooding to international institutions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-248" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-248" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[246]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Independence_Party" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="UK Independence Party">UK Independence Party</a> policy on climate change has been influenced by noted contrarian <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Monckton" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Christopher Monckton">Christopher Monckton</a> and then by its energy spokesman <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Helmer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Roger Helmer">Roger Helmer</a> MEP who stated in a speech "It is not clear that the rise in atmospheric CO<sub style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sub> is anthropogenic."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-249" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-249" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[247]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Jerry Taylor of the Niskanen Center posits that climate change denial is an important component of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumpian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Trumpian">Trumpian</a> historical consciousness, and "plays a significant role in the architecture of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumpism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a> as a developing philosophical system".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-250" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-250" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[248]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Though climate change denial was apparently waning <i>circa</i> 2021, some right-wing nationalist organizations have adopted a theory of "environmental populism" advocating that natural resources should be preserved for a nation's existing residents, to the exclusion of immigrants.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Guardian_20211121_251-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Guardian_20211121-251" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[249]</a></sup> Other such right-wing organizations have contrived new "green wings" that falsely assert it is refugees from poor nations who are the cause of environmental pollution and climate change, and should therefore be excluded.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Guardian_20211121_251-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Guardian_20211121-251" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[249]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Lobbying">Lobbying<span class="anchor" id="Tobacco_lobby"></span></span></h2><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation" style="background-color: #fbfbfb; border-color: rgb(162, 169, 177) rgb(162, 169, 177) rgb(162, 169, 177) rgb(242, 133, 0); border-image: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 10px; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px 86.3906px;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image" style="border: none; padding: 2px 0px 2px 0.5em; text-align: center;"><div class="mbox-image-div" style="width: 52px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><img alt="Globe icon." class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="290" data-file-width="350" decoding="async" height="40" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="48" /></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="border: none; padding: 0.25em 0.5em; width: 601px;"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>may not represent a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_denial&action=edit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Climate_change_denial" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Talk:Climate change denial">talk page</a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small style="font-size: 11.9px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Efforts to lobby against environmental regulation have included campaigns to manufacture doubt about the science behind climate change, and to obscure the scientific consensus and data.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-252" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-252" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[250]</a></sup> These efforts have undermined public confidence in climate science, and impacted climate change lobbying.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-freeman351_16-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-freeman351-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-disinformation_216-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-disinformation-216" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[214]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The political advocacy organizations <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreedomWorks" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="FreedomWorks">FreedomWorks</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans_for_Prosperity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Americans for Prosperity">Americans for Prosperity</a>, funded by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_activities_of_the_Koch_brothers" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Political activities of the Koch brothers">brothers David and Charles Koch</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koch_Industries" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Koch Industries">Koch Industries</a>, were important in supporting the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party movement</a> and in encouraging the movement to focus on climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-253" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-253" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[251]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Other conservative organizations, such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a>, Marshall Institute, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Enterprise Institute">American Enterprise Institute</a> were significant participants in these lobbying attempts, seeking to halt or eliminate environmental regulations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-254" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-254" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[252]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-255" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-255" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[253]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">This approach to downplay the significance of climate change was copied from <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_lobbyists" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco lobbyists">tobacco lobbyists</a>; in the face of scientific evidence linking tobacco to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_cancer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>, to prevent or delay the introduction of regulation. Lobbyists attempted to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrediting_tactic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Discrediting tactic">discredit</a> the scientific research by creating doubt and manipulating debate. They worked to discredit the scientists involved, to dispute their findings, and to create and maintain an apparent controversy by promoting claims that contradicted scientific research. "'Doubt is our product,' boasted a now infamous 1969 industry memo. Doubt would shield the tobacco industry from litigation and regulation for decades to come."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-256" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-256" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[254]</a></sup> In 2006, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Monbiot" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="George Monbiot">George Monbiot</a> wrote in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> about similarities between the methods of groups funded by <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Exxon">Exxon</a>, and those of the tobacco giant <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altria_Group" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Altria Group">Philip Morris</a>, including direct attacks on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Peer review">peer-reviewed</a> science, and attempts to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufactured_controversy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Manufactured controversy">create public controversy</a> and doubt.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-denial_ind_guardian_160-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-denial_ind_guardian-160" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[160]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Former <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> president <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a>, who, according to an article by Mark Hertsgaard in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(magazine)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vanity Fair (magazine)">Vanity Fair</a></i>, earned about <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US$" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="US$">US$</a>585,000 in the 1970s and 1980s as a consultant to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.J._Reynolds_Tobacco_Company" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company">R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-HertsgaardSlept_257-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-HertsgaardSlept-257" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[255]</a></sup> went on to chair groups such as the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Environmental_Policy_Project" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Science and Environmental Policy Project">Science and Environmental Policy Project</a> and the George C. Marshall Institute alleged to have made efforts to "downplay" global warming. Seitz stated in the 1980s that "Global warming is far more a matter of politics than of climate." Seitz authored the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_Petition" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oregon Petition">Oregon Petition</a>, a document published jointly by the Marshall Institute and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_Institute_of_Science_and_Medicine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine">Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine</a> in opposition to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_protocol" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kyoto protocol">Kyoto protocol</a>. The petition and accompanying "Research Review of Global Warming Evidence" claimed:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-denial_ind_guardian_160-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-denial_ind_guardian-160" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[160]</a></sup></p><blockquote style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 32px;"><p style="margin: 0px;">The proposed limits on greenhouse gases would harm the environment, hinder the advance of science and technology, and damage the health and welfare of mankind. There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide, methane, or other greenhouse gases is causing or will, in the foreseeable future, cause catastrophic heating of the Earth's atmosphere and disruption of the Earth's climate. ... We are living in an increasingly lush environment of plants and animals as a result of the carbon dioxide increase. Our children will enjoy an Earth with far more plant and animal life than that with which we now are blessed. This is a wonderful and unexpected gift from the Industrial Revolution.</p></blockquote><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">George Monbiot wrote in <i>The Guardian</i> that this petition, which he criticizes as misleading and tied to industry funding, "has been cited by almost every journalist who claims that climate change is a myth". Efforts by climate change denial groups played a significant role in the eventual rejection of the Kyoto protocol in the US.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-258" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-258" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[256]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Monbiot has written about another group founded by the tobacco lobby, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Advancement_of_Sound_Science_Coalition" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition">The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition</a> (TASSC), that now campaigns against measures to combat global warming. In again trying to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroturfing" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Astroturfing">manufacture the appearance of a grass-roots movement</a> against "unfounded fear" and "over-regulation", Monbiot states that TASSC "has done more damage to the campaign to halt [climate change] than any other body".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-denial_ind_guardian_160-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-denial_ind_guardian-160" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[160]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drexel_University" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Drexel University">Drexel University</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_sociology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental sociology">environmental sociologist</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brulle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Robert Brulle">Robert Brulle</a> analysed the funding of 91 organizations opposed to restrictions on carbon emissions, which he termed the "climate change counter-movement". Between 2003 and 2013, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donor-advised_fund" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Donor-advised fund">donor-advised funds</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donors_Trust" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Donors Trust">Donors Trust</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donors_Capital_Fund" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Donors Capital Fund">Donors Capital Fund</a>, combined, were the largest funders, accounting for about one quarter of the total funds, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Enterprise Institute">American Enterprise Institute</a> was the largest recipient, 16% of the total funds. The study also found that the amount of money donated to these organizations by means of foundations whose funding sources cannot be traced had risen.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-brulle2013_259-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-brulle2013-259" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[257]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-guardian20131220_260-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-guardian20131220-260" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[258]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sciam_261-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-sciam-261" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[259]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-guardian20130214_262-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-guardian20130214-262" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[260]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-frontline20121-23_263-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-frontline20121-23-263" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[261]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The work of economic consultancy <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRA_International" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CRA International">Charles River Associates</a> forecasting the impact on employment of the 2003 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_Stewardship_Acts" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate Stewardship Acts">Climate Stewardship Act</a> was criticized by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Resources_Defense_Council" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Natural Resources Defense Council">Natural Resources Defense Council</a> in 2005 for using unrealistic economic assumptions and producing directionally incorrect estimates.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-264" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-264" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[262]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This section should provide a high-level overview of lobbying and climate change denial, ideally avoiding reliance on primary sources (January 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A 2021 study concluded their work from the 1990s to the 2010s overestimated predicted costs and ignored potential policy benefits, and was often presented by politicians and lobbyists as independent rather than sponsored by the fossil fuel industry. Other papers published during that time by economists at <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="MIT">MIT</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton_Econometric_Forecasting_Associates" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates">Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates</a>, also with funding from the fossil fuel industry, produced similar conclusions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_265-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-:0-265" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[263]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Private_sector">Private sector</span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Business action on climate change">Business action on climate change</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobil_climate_change_controversy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ExxonMobil climate change controversy">ExxonMobil climate change controversy</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Several large corporations within the fossil fuel industry provide significant funding for attempts to mislead the public about the trustworthiness of climate science.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-266" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-266" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[264]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobil" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ExxonMobil">ExxonMobil</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koch_family_foundations" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Koch family foundations">Koch family foundations</a> have been identified as especially influential funders of climate change contrarianism.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-267" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-267" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[265]</a></sup> The bankruptcy of the coal company <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_Peak_Energy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cloud Peak Energy">Cloud Peak Energy</a> revealed it funded the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Energy_Research" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Institute for Energy Research">Institute for Energy Research</a>, a climate denial think tank, as well as several other policy influencers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-268" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-268" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[266]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-269" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-269" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[267]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">After the IPCC released its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Fourth Assessment Report">February 2007 report</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Enterprise Institute">American Enterprise Institute</a> offered British, American and other scientists $10,000 plus travel expenses to publish articles critical of the assessment. The institute had received more than US$1.6 million from Exxon, and its vice-chairman of trustees was former head of Exxon <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Raymond" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lee Raymond">Lee Raymond</a>. Raymond sent letters that alleged the IPCC report was not "supported by the analytical work." More than 20 AEI employees worked as consultants to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush_administration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="George W. Bush administration">George W. Bush administration</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-270" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-270" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[268]</a></sup> Despite her initial conviction that climate change denial would abate with time, Senator <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Boxer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Barbara Boxer">Barbara Boxer</a> said that when she learned of the AEI's offer, she "realized there was a movement behind this that just wasn't giving up".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Newsweek_271-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Newsweek-271" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[269]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> conducted a survey that found ExxonMobil had given US$2.9 million to American groups that "misinformed the public about climate change", 39 of which "misrepresented the science of climate change by outright denial of the evidence".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-G2_272-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-G2-272" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[270]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-273" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-273" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[271]</a></sup> In 2006, the Royal Society issued a demand that ExxonMobil withdraw funding for climate change denial. The letter drew criticism, notably from <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Ball" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Timothy Ball">Timothy Ball</a> who argued the society attempted to "politicize the private funding of science and to censor scientific debate".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-274" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-274" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[272]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Research conducted at an <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Exxon">Exxon</a> archival collection at the University of Texas and interviews with former employees by journalists indicate the scientific opinion within the company and their public posture towards climate change was contradictory.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-275" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-275" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[273]</a></sup> A systematic review of Exxon's climate modeling projections concluded that in private and academic circles since the late 1970s and early 1980s, ExxonMobil predicted global warming correctly and skillfully, correctly dismissed the possibility of a coming ice age in favor of a "carbon dioxide induced super-interglacial", and reasonably estimated how much CO2 would lead to dangerous warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Science_30230112_276-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Science_30230112-276" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[274]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Between 1989 and 2002, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Climate_Coalition" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global Climate Coalition">Global Climate Coalition</a>, a group of mainly United States businesses, used aggressive lobbying and public relations tactics to oppose action to reduce <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> and fight the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>. The coalition was financed by large corporations and trade groups from the oil, coal and auto industries. <i>The New York Times</i> reported that "even as the coalition worked to sway opinion [towards skepticism], its own scientific and technical experts were advising that the science backing the role of greenhouse gases in global warming could not be refuted".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-277" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-277" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[275]</a></sup> In 2000, Ford Motor Company was the first company to leave the coalition as a result of pressure from environmentalists,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-278" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-278" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[276]</a></sup> followed by Daimler-Chrysler, Texaco, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Company" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern Company">Southern Company</a> and General Motors subsequently left to GCC.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-279" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-279" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[277]</a></sup> The organization closed in 2002.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">From January 2009 through June 2010, the oil, coal and utility industries spent $500 million in lobby expenditures in opposition to legislation to address climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-nyt20101020_280-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-nyt20101020-280" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[278]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-cap20100927_281-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-cap20100927-281" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[279]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In early 2015, several media reports emerged saying that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Soon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Willie Soon">Willie Soon</a>, a popular scientist among climate change deniers, had failed to disclose conflicts of interest in at least 11 scientific papers published since 2008.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-282" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-282" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[280]</a></sup> They reported that he received a total of $1.25m from ExxonMobil, Southern Company, the American Petroleum Institute and a foundation run by the Koch brothers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-283" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-283" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[281]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_R._Alcock" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Charles R. Alcock">Charles R. Alcock</a>, director of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard%E2%80%93Smithsonian_Center_for_Astrophysics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics">Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics</a>, where Soon was based, said that allowing funders of Soon's work to prohibit disclosure of funding sources was a mistake, which will not be permitted in future grant agreements.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-284" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-284" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[282]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Lewandowsky reports that by asking four questions about the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_market" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Free market">free market</a> he is able to predict with "67% "confidence" (that is, variance)" an individual's attitudes towards climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-phys.org_195-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-phys.org-195" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[193]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Public_sector">Public sector</span></h3><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 0.8em 1.4em; max-width: 100%; padding: 10px; width: 345.594px;"><div class="quotebox-title" style="font-size: 15.4px; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;">During the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_California_wildfires" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="2020 California wildfires">2020 California wildfires</a></div><blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="border-left: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><p style="margin: 0px;">It'll start getting cooler, you just watch. [...] I don't think science knows, actually.</p></blockquote><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><cite class="right-aligned" style="display: block; font-style: normal; text-align: right;">— Then U.S. President Donald Trump,<br />September 13, 2020.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Politico_20200917_285-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Politico_20200917-285" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[283]</a></sup></cite></p></div><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span class="mw-tmh-player video" style="display: inline-block; line-height: 0; position: relative;"><video class="mw-file-element" data-durationhint="155" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" data-mwtitle="Former_Senator_Tom_Coburn-_Paris_Climate_Agreement_Was_'Poorly_Negotiated'.webm" disabled="disabled" height="141" id="mwe_player_0_placeholder" poster="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Former_Senator_Tom_Coburn-_Paris_Climate_Agreement_Was_%27Poorly_Negotiated%27.webm/250px--Former_Senator_Tom_Coburn-_Paris_Climate_Agreement_Was_%27Poorly_Negotiated%27.webm.jpg" preload="none" resource="/wiki/File:Former_Senator_Tom_Coburn-_Paris_Climate_Agreement_Was_%27Poorly_Negotiated%27.webm" style="aspect-ratio: 250 / 141; background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); height: auto; margin: 3px; max-width: 100%;" tabindex="-1" width="250"></video><a class="mw-tmh-play" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Former_Senator_Tom_Coburn-_Paris_Climate_Agreement_Was_%27Poorly_Negotiated%27.webm" role="button" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; display: block; inset: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: absolute; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Play media"><span class="mw-tmh-play-icon" style="aspect-ratio: 1 / 1; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.8); background-origin: initial; background-position: 50% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns=%22http://www.w3.org/2000/svg%22 width=%2220%22 height=%2220%22 viewBox=%220 0 20 20%22%3E %3Ctitle%3Eplay%3C/title%3E %3Cpath fill=%22%23fff%22 d=%22M4.55 19A1 1 0 0 1 3 18.13V1.87A1 1 0 0 1 4.55 1l12.2 8.13a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.7z%22/%3E %3C/svg%3E") center center no-repeat rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.8); border-radius: 50%; display: block; height: min(50px, 70%); left: 129px; margin: auto; position: absolute; top: 74.5px; transform: translate(-50%, -50%); transition: transform 120ms ease-out 0s, background-color 120ms ease-out 0s; width: auto;"></span></a></span><a class="mw-file-magnify" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Former_Senator_Tom_Coburn-_Paris_Climate_Agreement_Was_%27Poorly_Negotiated%27.webm" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">Former senator <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Coburn" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tom Coburn">Tom Coburn</a> of the United States in 2017 discussing the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_agreement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Paris agreement">Paris agreement</a> and denying the scientific consensus on human-caused global warming. Coburn claimed that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> had been no more than 5 mm in 25 years, and asserted there was now <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_cooling" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global cooling">global cooling</a>. In 2013 he said "I am a global warming denier. I don't deny that."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Brown_2013_286-0" style="font-size: 9.9008px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Brown_2013-286" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[284]</a></sup></figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party in the United States</a> is unique in denying <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming">anthropogenic climate change</a> among conservative political parties across the Western world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-287" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-287" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[285]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-288" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-288" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[286]</a></sup> In 1994, according to a leaked memo, the Republican strategist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Luntz" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Frank Luntz">Frank Luntz</a> advised members of the Republican Party, with regard to climate change, that "you need to continue to make the lack of scientific certainty a primary issue" and "challenge the science" by "recruiting experts who are sympathetic to your view".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Newsweek_271-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Newsweek-271" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[269]</a></sup> (In 2006, Luntz said he still believes "back [in] '97, '98, the science was uncertain", but he now agrees with the scientific consensus.)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-289" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-289" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[287]</a></sup> From 2008 to 2017, the Republican Party went from "debating how to combat human-caused climate change to arguing that it does not exist", according to <i>The New York Times</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-290" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-290" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[288]</a></sup> In 2011, "more than half of the Republicans in the House and three-quarters of Republican senators" said "that the threat of global warming, as a human-made and highly threatening phenomenon, is at best an exaggeration and at worst an utter 'hoax<span style="padding-right: 0.15em;">'</span>" according to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Warner" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Judith Warner">Judith Warner</a> writing in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Magazine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The New York Times Magazine">The New York Times Magazine</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-nyt20110227_291-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-nyt20110227-291" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[289]</a></sup> In 2014, more than 55% of congressional Republicans were climate change deniers, according to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC_News" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="NBC News">NBC News</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-msnbc20140512_292-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-msnbc20140512-292" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[290]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-293" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-293" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[291]</a></sup> According to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PolitiFact" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a> in May 2014, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Brown" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jerry Brown">Jerry Brown</a>'s statement that "virtually no Republican" in Washington accepts climate change science, was "mostly true"; PolitiFact counted "eight out of 278, or about 3 percent" of Republican members of Congress who "accept the prevailing scientific conclusion that global warming is both real and man-made."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-294" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-294" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[292]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-295" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-295" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[293]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2005, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> reported that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Cooney" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Philip Cooney">Philip Cooney</a>, former <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuels_lobby" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fossil fuels lobby">fossil fuel lobbyist</a> and "climate team leader" at the American Petroleum Institute and President George W. Bush's chief of staff of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Environmental_Quality" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Council on Environmental Quality">Council on Environmental Quality</a>, had "repeatedly edited government climate reports in ways that play down links between such emissions and global warming, according to internal documents".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NYT_296-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NYT-296" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[294]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Begley" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sharon Begley">Sharon Begley</a> reported in <i>Newsweek</i> that Cooney "edited a 2002 report on climate science by sprinkling it with phrases such as 'lack of understanding' and 'considerable uncertainty'." Cooney reportedly removed an entire section on climate in one report, whereupon another lobbyist sent him a fax saying "You are doing a great job."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Newsweek_271-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Newsweek-271" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[269]</a></sup> Cooney announced his resignation two days after the story of his tampering with scientific reports broke,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-297" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-297" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[295]</a></sup> but a few days later it was announced that Cooney would take up a position with ExxonMobil.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-298" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-298" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[296]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Energy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States Secretary of Energy">United States Secretary of Energy</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Perry" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rick Perry">Rick Perry</a>, in a June 2017 interview with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNBC" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CNBC">CNBC</a>, acknowledged the existence of climate change and impact from humans, but said that he did not agree with the idea that carbon dioxide was the primary driver of global warming pointing instead to "the ocean waters and this environment that we live in".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-299" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-299" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[297]</a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</a> responded in a letter to Perry saying that it is "critically important that you understand that emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are the primary cause", pointing to conclusions of scientists worldwide.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-300" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-300" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[298]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Republican <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Bridenstine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jim Bridenstine">Jim Bridenstine</a>, the first elected politician to serve as NASA administrator, had previously stated that global temperatures were not rising. A month after the Senate confirmed his NASA position in April 2018, he acknowledged that human emissions of greenhouse gases are raising global temperatures.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-301" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-301" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[299]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-302" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-302" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[300]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Although climate denial have started to decrease among the Republican Party leadership towards an acknowledgement that "the climate is changing", a 2019 study from several major think tanks describes the climate right as "fragmented and underfunded".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-303" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-303" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[301]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Acknowledgement of climate change by politicians, while expressing uncertainty as to how much climate change can be attributed to human activity, has been described as a new form of climate denial, and "a reliable tool to manipulate public perception of climate change and stall political action".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-304" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-304" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[302]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-305" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-305" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[303]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Schools">Schools</span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">According to documents leaked in February 2012, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Heartland_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Heartland Institute">The Heartland Institute</a> is developing a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a> for use in schools which frames climate change as a scientific controversy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NYTHeartland_306-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NYTHeartland-306" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[304]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-307" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-307" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[305]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-308" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-308" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[306]</a></sup> In 2017, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Branch" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Glenn Branch">Glenn Branch</a>, Deputy Director of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Science_Education" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Center for Science Education">National Center for Science Education</a> (NCSE), wrote that "the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartland_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Heartland Institute">Heartland Institute</a> is continuing to inflict its climate change denial literature on science teachers across the country". He also described how some science teachers were reacting to Heartland's mailings: "Fortunately, the Heartland mailing continues to be greeted with skepticism and dismissed with scorn."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSE_Branch_6/5/2017_309-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSE_Branch_6/5/2017-309" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[307]</a></sup> The NCSE has prepared Classroom Resources in response to Heartland and other anti-science threats.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSE_Classroom_2017_310-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSE_Classroom_2017-310" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[308]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Branch also referred to an article by ClimateFeedback.org<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NCSE_Branch_6/5/2017_309-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-NCSE_Branch_6/5/2017-309" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[307]</a></sup> which reviewed an unsolicited Heartland booklet, entitled "Why Scientists Disagree about Global Warming", which was sent to science teachers in the United States. Their intention was to send it to "more than 200,000 K–12 teachers". Each significant claim was rated for accuracy by scientists who were experts on that topic. Overall, they scored the accuracy of the booklet with an "F": "it could hardly score lower", and "the 'Key Findings' section are incorrect, misleading, based on flawed logic, or simply factually inaccurate".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Climate_Feedback_2017_311-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Climate_Feedback_2017-311" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[309]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Effect">Effect</span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufactured_controversy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Manufactured controversy">Manufactured uncertainty</a> over climate change, the fundamental strategy of climate change denial, has been very effective, particularly in the US. It has contributed to low levels of public concern and to government inaction worldwide.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-public-success_25-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-public-success-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-312" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-312" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[310]</a></sup> An Angus Reid poll released in 2010 indicates that global warming skepticism in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom has been rising.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CorcoranCoolDown_313-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-CorcoranCoolDown-313" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[311]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-314" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-314" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[312]</a></sup> There may be multiple causes of this trend, including a focus on economic rather than environmental issues, and a negative perception of the United Nations and its role in discussing climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-RasmussenPoll_315-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-RasmussenPoll-315" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[313]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Another cause may be weariness from overexposure to the topic: secondary polls suggest that the public may have been discouraged by extremism when discussing the topic,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CorcoranCoolDown_313-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-CorcoranCoolDown-313" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[311]</a></sup> while other polls show 54% of U.S. voters believe that "the news media make global warming appear worse than it really is."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-RasmussenMediaHype_316-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-RasmussenMediaHype-316" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[314]</a></sup> A poll in 2009 regarding the issue of whether "some scientists have falsified research data to support their own theories and beliefs about global warming" showed that 59% of Americans believed it "at least somewhat likely", with 35% believing it was "very likely".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-RasmussenPoll_315-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-RasmussenPoll-315" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[313]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">According to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Wirth" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tim Wirth">Tim Wirth</a>, "They patterned what they did after the tobacco industry. ... Both figured, sow enough doubt, call the science uncertain and in dispute. That's had a huge impact on both the public and Congress."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-tobacco-approach_75-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-tobacco-approach-75" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[75]</a></sup> This approach has been propagated by the US media, presenting a false balance between climate science and climate skeptics.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-317" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-317" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[315]</a></sup> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i> reports that the majority of Europe and Japan accept the consensus on scientific climate change, but only one third of Americans considered human activity to play a major role in climate change in 2006; 64% believed that scientists disagreed about it "a lot."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-318" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-318" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[316]</a></sup> A 2007 <i>Newsweek</i> poll found these numbers were declining, although majorities of Americans still believed that scientists were uncertain about climate change and its causes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-319" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-319" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[317]</a></sup> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rush_D._Holt,_Jr." style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rush D. Holt, Jr.">Rush Holt</a> wrote a piece for <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>, which appeared in <i>Newsweek</i>:</p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><p style="margin: 0px;">for more than two decades scientists have been issuing warnings that the release of greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide (CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span>), is probably altering Earth's climate in ways that will be expensive and even deadly. The American public yawned and bought bigger cars. Statements by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>, and others underscored the warnings and called for new government policies to deal with climate change. Politicians, presented with noisy statistics, shrugged, said there is too much doubt among scientists, and did nothing.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-320" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-320" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[318]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Deliberate attempts by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Fuels_Association" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Western Fuels Association">Western Fuels Association</a> "to confuse the public" have succeeded in their objectives. This has been "exacerbated by media treatment of the climate issue". According to a Pew poll in 2012, 57% of the US public are unaware of, or outright reject, the scientific consensus on climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Cook_1-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Cook-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup> Some organizations promoting climate change denial have asserted that scientists are increasingly rejecting climate change, but this notion is contradicted by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveys_of_scientists%27_views_on_climate_change#John_Cook_et_al.,_2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Surveys of scientists' views on climate change">research showing that 97%</a> of published papers endorse the scientific consensus, and that percentage is increasing with time.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Cook_1-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Cook-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Social psychologist Craig Foster compares climate change denialists to flat-earth believers and the reaction to the latter by the scientific community. Foster states, "the potential and kinetic energy devoted to counter the flat-earth movement is wasteful and misguided ... I don't understand why anybody would worry about the flat-earth gnat while facing the climate change mammoth ... Climate change denial does not require belief. It only requires neglect."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Foster_321-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-Foster-321" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[319]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2016, Aaron McCright argued that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-environmentalism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Anti-environmentalism">anti-environmentalism</a>—and climate change denial specifically—has expanded to a point in the US where it has now become "a central tenet of the current <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservative</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> identity".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-322" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-322" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[320]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">On the other hand, global oil companies have begun to acknowledge the existence of climate change and its risks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-323" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-323" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[321]</a></sup> Still top oil firms are spending millions lobbying to delay, weaken or block policies to tackle climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-324" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-324" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[322]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Manufactured climate change denial is also influencing how scientific knowledge is communicated to the public. According to climate scientist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_E._Mann" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Michael E. Mann">Michael E. Mann</a>, "universities and scientific societies and organizations, publishers, etc.—are too often risk averse when it comes to defending and communicating science that is perceived as threatening by powerful interests".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-325" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-325" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[323]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-326" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_note-326" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[324]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2><div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12.6px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references" style="counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-parent 0 mw-references 0 list-item 0; font-size: 12.6px; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li id="cite_note-NationalNarcissism-189" style="counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NationalNarcissism_189-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cislak <i>et al.</i> define National Narcissism as "a belief that one’s national group is exceptional and deserves external recognition underlain by unsatisfied psychological needs".</span></li><li id="cite_note-SecureNationalIdentification-190" style="counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-SecureNationalIdentification_190-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cislak <i>et al.</i> define Secure National Identification as "reflect(ing) feelings of strong bonds and solidarity with one's ingroup members, and sense of satisfaction in group membership".</span></li></ol></div></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2><ul aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright" role="navigation" style="background: rgb(249, 249, 249); border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; display: table; float: right; list-style: none; margin: 0.5em 0px 0.5em 1em; max-width: 175px; padding: 0.1em;"><li class="portalbox-entry" style="display: table-row; font-size: 11.9px; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; height: 1.9em; line-height: 13.09px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="portalbox-image" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="icon" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1056" data-file-width="1112" decoding="async" height="28" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/30px-Climate_change_icon.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/44px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/59px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="30" /></span></span><span class="portalbox-link" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></span></li></ul><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco industry playbook">Tobacco industry playbook</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnotology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-environmentalism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Anti-environmentalism">Anti-environmentalism</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_bubble" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon bubble">Carbon bubble</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_skepticism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental skepticism">Environmental skepticism</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Council_for_the_Environment" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Information Council for the Environment">Information Council for the Environment</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Climate_Change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="International Conference on Climate Change">International Conference on Climate Change</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change#Alarmism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Media coverage of climate change">Climate alarmist</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivated_reasoning" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Motivated reasoning">Motivated reasoning</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization#Non-technical_barriers_to_acceptance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization: Non-technical barriers to acceptance</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semmelweis_reflex" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Semmelweis reflex">Semmelweis reflex</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Films:<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_Change_Denial_Disorder" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate Change Denial Disorder">Climate Change Denial Disorder</a></i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satire" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Satire">satirical</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parody" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Parody">parody</a> film about a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictional_disease" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fictional disease">fictional disease</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_the_Flood_(film)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Before the Flood (film)">Before the Flood</a></i>, documenting climate change denial and lobbying processes</li></ul></li></ul><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2><div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12.6px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns" style="column-width: 30em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><ol class="references" style="counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-parent 0 mw-references 0 list-item 0; font-size: 12.6px; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li id="cite_note-Cook-1" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Cook_1-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Cook_1-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Cook_1-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCook2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cook, John; et al. (15 May 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F8%2F2%2F024024" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Quantifying the consensus on anthropogenic global warming in the scientific literature"</a>. <i>Environmental Research Letters</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 024024. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ERL.....8b4024C" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2013ERL.....8b4024C</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F8%2F2%2F024024" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024</a></span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">there is a significant gap between public perception and reality, with 57% of the US public either disagreeing or unaware that scientists overwhelmingly agree that the earth is warming due to human activity (Pew 2012). Contributing to this "consensus gap" are campaigns designed to confuse the public about the level of agreement among climate scientists. ... The narrative presented by some dissenters is that the scientific consensus is "on the point of collapse" while "the number of scientific 'heretics' is growing with each passing year" A systematic, comprehensive review of the literature provides quantitative evidence countering this assertion. The number of papers rejecting AGW is a minuscule proportion of the published research, with the percentage slightly decreasing over time. Among papers expressing a position on AGW, an overwhelming percentage (97.2% based on self-ratings, 97.1% based on abstract ratings) endorses the scientific consensus on AGW.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Quantifying+the+consensus+on+anthropogenic+global+warming+in+the+scientific+literature&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=024024&rft.date=2013-05-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F8%2F2%2F024024&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013ERL.....8b4024C&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1748-9326%252F8%252F2%252F024024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Cook_2016-2" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Cook_2016_2-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCookOreskesDoranAnderegg2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cook, John; Oreskes, Naomi; Doran, Peter T.; Anderegg, William R. L.; et al. (2016). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F11%2F4%2F048002" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Consensus on consensus: a synthesis of consensus estimates on human-caused global warming"</a>. <i>Environmental Research Letters</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 048002. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ERL....11d8002C" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2016ERL....11d8002C</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F11%2F4%2F048002" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/048002</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Consensus+on+consensus%3A+a+synthesis+of+consensus+estimates+on+human-caused+global+warming&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=048002&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F11%2F4%2F048002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016ERL....11d8002C&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Oreskes%2C+Naomi&rft.au=Doran%2C+Peter+T.&rft.au=Anderegg%2C+William+R.+L.&rft.au=Verheggen%2C+Bart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1748-9326%252F11%252F4%252F048002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Powell2019-3" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Powell2019_3-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFPowell2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_L._Powell" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="James L. Powell">Powell, James Lawrence</a> (20 November 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0270467619886266" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Scientists Reach 100% Consensus on Anthropogenic Global Warming"</a>. <i>Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society</i>. <b>37</b> (4): 183–184. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0270467619886266" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0270467619886266</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213454806" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">213454806</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">15 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Science%2C+Technology+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Scientists+Reach+100%25+Consensus+on+Anthropogenic+Global+Warming&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=183-184&rft.date=2019-11-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0270467619886266&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213454806%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=James+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1177%2F0270467619886266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-EnvRschLtrs_20211019-4" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-EnvRschLtrs_20211019_4-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLynasHoultonPerry2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lynas, Mark; Houlton, Benjamin Z.; Perry, Simon (19 October 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2966" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Greater than 99% consensus on human caused climate change in the peer-reviewed scientific literature"</a>. <i>Environmental Research Letters</i>. <b>16</b> (11): 114005. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ERL....16k4005L" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2021ERL....16k4005L</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2966" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1088/1748-9326/ac2966</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239032360" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">239032360</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Greater+than+99%25+consensus+on+human+caused+climate+change+in+the+peer-reviewed+scientific+literature&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=114005&rft.date=2021-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239032360%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2966&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021ERL....16k4005L&rft.aulast=Lynas&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Houlton%2C+Benjamin+Z.&rft.au=Perry%2C+Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1748-9326%252Fac2966&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Myers_2021-5" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Myers_2021_5-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMyersDoranCookKotcher2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Myers, Krista F.; Doran, Peter T.; Cook, John; Kotcher, John E.; Myers, Teresa A. (20 October 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2774" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Consensus revisited: quantifying scientific agreement on climate change and climate expertise among Earth scientists 10 years later"</a>. <i>Environmental Research Letters</i>. <b>16</b> (10): 104030. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ERL....16j4030M" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2021ERL....16j4030M</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2774" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1088/1748-9326/ac2774</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239047650" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">239047650</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Consensus+revisited%3A+quantifying+scientific+agreement+on+climate+change+and+climate+expertise+among+Earth+scientists+10+years+later&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=104030&rft.date=2021-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239047650%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2774&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021ERL....16j4030M&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Krista+F.&rft.au=Doran%2C+Peter+T.&rft.au=Cook%2C+John&rft.au=Kotcher%2C+John+E.&rft.au=Myers%2C+Teresa+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1748-9326%252Fac2774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-6" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFHoofnagleHoofnagle2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hoofnagle, Mark; Hoofnagle, Chris (8 September 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070908072624/http://scienceblogs.com/denialism/about.php" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"denialism blog : About"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceBlogs" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ScienceBlogs">ScienceBlogs</a></i>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://scienceblogs.com/denialism/about.php" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 8 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 February</span> 2022</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Denialism is the employment of rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of argument or legitimate debate, when in actuality there is none. These false arguments are used when one has few or no facts to support one's viewpoint against a scientific consensus or against overwhelming evidence to the contrary. They are effective in distracting from actual useful debate using emotionally appealing, but ultimately empty and illogical assertions. .... 5 general tactics are used by denialists to sow confusion. They are conspiracy, selectivity (cherry-picking), fake experts, impossible expectations (also known as moving goalposts), and general fallacies of logic.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceBlogs&rft.atitle=denialism+blog+%3A+About&rft.date=2007-09-08&rft.aulast=Hoofnagle&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Hoofnagle%2C+Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscienceblogs.com%2Fdenialism%2Fabout.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Diethelm_McKee-7" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Diethelm_McKee_7-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Diethelm_McKee_7-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFDiethelmMcKee2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Diethelm & McKee 2009</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-Farmer_Cook_2013_p._449-8" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Farmer_Cook_2013_p._449_8-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFFarmerCook2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Farmer, G.T.; Cook, J. (2013). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tbtEAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA449" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Change Science: A Modern Synthesis: Volume 1 – The Physical Climate</i></a>. Climate Change Science: A Modern Synthesis. Springer Netherlands. pp. 449–450. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5757-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5757-8"><bdi>978-94-007-5757-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+Science%3A+A+Modern+Synthesis%3A+Volume+1+%E2%80%93+The+Physical+Climate&rft.series=Climate+Change+Science%3A+A+Modern+Synthesis&rft.pages=449-450&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-007-5757-8&rft.aulast=Farmer&rft.aufirst=G.T.&rft.au=Cook%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtbtEAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-ncse-pillars-9" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-ncse-pillars_9-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-ncse-pillars_9-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Center_for_Science_Education2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Center for Science Education (4 June 2010). <a class="external text" href="http://ncse.com/climate/denial/climate-change-is-good-science" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change is good science"</a>. National Center for Science Education. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160424170135/http://ncse.com/climate/denial/climate-change-is-good-science" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">21 June</span>2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Climate+change+is+good+science&rft.pub=National+Center+for+Science+Education&rft.date=2010-06-04&rft.au=National+Center+for+Science+Education&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fncse.com%2Fclimate%2Fdenial%2Fclimate-change-is-good-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> "The first pillar of climate change denial—that climate change is bad science—attacks various aspects of the scientific consensus about climate change ... there are climate change deniers:<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">who deny that significant climate change is occurring</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">who ... deny that human activity is significantly responsible</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">who ... deny the scientific evidence about its significant effects on the world and our society ...</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">who ... deny that humans can take significant actions to reduce or mitigate its impact.</li></ul>Of these varieties of climate change denial, the most visible are the first and the second."</span></li><li id="cite_note-NCSE-why-denial-10" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSE-why-denial_10-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFNational_Center_for_Science_Education2016" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">National Center for Science Education 2016</a>.</span></li><li id="cite_note-Powell2012-11" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Powell2012_11-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Powell2012_11-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPowell2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Powell 2012</a>, pp. 170–173: "Anatomy of Denial—Global warming deniers ... . throw up a succession of claims, and fall back from one line of defense to the next as scientists refute each one in turn. Then they start over:<br />'The earth is not warming.'<br />'All right, it is warming but the Sun is the cause.'<br />'Well then, humans are the cause, but it doesn't matter, because it warming will do no harm. More carbon dioxide will actually be beneficial. More crops will grow.'<br />'Admittedly, global warming could turn out to be harmful, but we can do nothing about it.'<br />'Sure, we could do something about global warming, but the cost would be too great. We have more pressing problems here and now, like AIDS and poverty.'<br />'We might be able to afford to do something to address global warming some-day, but we need to wait for sound science, new technologies, and geoengineering.'<br />'The earth is not warming. Global warming ended in 1998; it was never a crisis.'</span></li><li id="cite_note-NCSE_implicit-12" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSE_implicit_12-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSE_implicit_12-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFNational_Center_for_Science_Education2016" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">National Center for Science Education 2016</a>: "Climate change denial is most conspicuous when it is explicit, as it is in controversies over climate education. The idea of implicit (or "implicatory") denial, however, is increasingly discussed among those who study the controversies over climate change. Implicit denial occurs when people who accept the scientific community's consensus on the answers to the central questions of climate change on the intellectual level fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action. Such people are in denial, so to speak, about climate change."</span></li><li id="cite_note-continuum-13" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-continuum_13-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFDunlap2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Dunlap 2013</a>, pp. 691–698: "There is debate over which term is most appropriate ... Those involved in challenging climate science label themselves 'skeptics' ... Yet skepticism is ... a common characteristic of scientists, making it inappropriate to allow those who deny AGW to don the mantle of skeptics ... It seems best to think of skepticism-denial as a continuum, with some individuals (and interest groups) holding a skeptical view of AGW ... and others in complete denial"</span></li><li id="cite_note-Timmer-14" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Timmer_14-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFTimmer2014" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Timmer 2014</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-15" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFOve_Hansson2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sven_Ove_Hansson" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sven Ove Hansson">Ove Hansson, Sven</a> (2017). "Science denial as a form of pseudoscience". <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>63</b>: 39–47. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017SHPSA..63...39H" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2017SHPSA..63...39H</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsa.2017.05.002" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.05.002</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28629651" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">28629651</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Science+denial+as+a+form+of+pseudoscience&rft.volume=63&rft.pages=39-47&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28629651&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.shpsa.2017.05.002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017SHPSA..63...39H&rft.aulast=Ove+Hansson&rft.aufirst=Sven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-freeman351-16" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-freeman351_16-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-freeman351_16-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-freeman351_16-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFJacquesDunlapFreeman2008" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Jacques, Dunlap & Freeman 2008</a>, p. 351: "Conservative think tanks ... and their backers launched a full-scale counter-movement ... We suggest that this counter-movement has been central to the reversal of US support for environmental protection, both domestically and internationally. Its major tactic has been disputing the seriousness of environmental problems and undermining environmental science by promoting what we term 'environmental scepticism.'"</span></li><li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaidyanathan2014-17" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaidyanathan2014_17-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFVaidyanathan2014" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Vaidyanathan 2014</a>.</span></li><li id="cite_note-denial_machine-18" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-denial_machine_18-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-denial_machine_18-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFDunlap2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Dunlap 2013</a>, pp. 691–698: "From the outset, there has been an organized '<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Disinformation">disinformation</a>' campaign ... to 'manufacture uncertainty' over AGW ... especially by attacking climate science and scientists ... waged by a loose coalition of industrial (especially fossil fuels) interests and conservative foundations and think tanks ... often assisted by a small number of contrarian scientists. ... greatly aided by conservative media and politicians . and more recently by a bevy of skeptical bloggers. This 'denial machine' has played a crucial role in generating skepticism toward AGW among laypeople and policymakers".</span></li><li id="cite_note-Newsweek_denial_machine-19" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Newsweek_denial_machine_19-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBegley2007" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Begley 2007</a>: "ICE and the Global Climate Coalition lobbied hard against a global treaty to curb greenhouse gases, and were joined by a central cog in the denial machine: the George C. Marshall Institute, a conservative think tank. ... the denial machine—think tanks linking up with like-minded, contrarian researchers"</span></li><li id="cite_note-20" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFDunlap2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Dunlap 2013</a>: "The campaign has been waged by a loose coalition of industrial (especially fossil fuels) interests and conservative foundations and think tanks ... These actors are greatly aided by conservative media and politicians, and more recently by a bevy of skeptical bloggers."</span></li><li id="cite_note-Michaels-21" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Michaels_21-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Michaels (2008) <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubt_is_Their_Product" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doubt is Their Product">Doubt is Their Product</a>: How Industry's Assault on Science Threatens Your Health</i>.</span></li><li id="cite_note-Hoggan-22" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Hoggan_22-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFHogganLittlemore2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hoggan, James; Littlemore, Richard (2009). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tQYjQzOkYK0C&q=Climate+Cover-Up:+The+Crusade+to+Deny+Global+Warming" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Cover-Up: The Crusade to Deny Global Warming</i></a>. Vancouver: Greystone Books. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55365-485-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55365-485-8"><bdi>978-1-55365-485-8</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210630123321/https://books.google.com/books?id=tQYjQzOkYK0C&q=Climate+Cover-Up:+The+Crusade+to+Deny+Global+Warming" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">19 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Cover-Up%3A+The+Crusade+to+Deny+Global+Warming&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=Greystone+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-55365-485-8&rft.aulast=Hoggan&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Littlemore%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtQYjQzOkYK0C%26q%3DClimate%2BCover-Up%3A%2BThe%2BCrusade%2Bto%2BDeny%2BGlobal%2BWarming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> See, e.g., pp. 31 <i>ff</i>, describing industry-based advocacy strategies in the context of climate change denial, and p73 <i>ff</i>, describing involvement of free-market think tanks in climate-change denial.</span></li><li id="cite_note-23" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFXifra2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Xifra, Jordi (2016). "Climate Change Deniers and Advocacy: A Situational Theory of Publics Approach". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Behavioral_Scientist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Behavioral Scientist">American Behavioral Scientist</a></i>. <b>60</b> (3): 276–287. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002764215613403" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0002764215613403</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10230%2F32970" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10230/32970</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:58914584" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">58914584</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Behavioral+Scientist&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+Deniers+and+Advocacy%3A+A+Situational+Theory+of+Publics+Approach&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=276-287&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10230%2F32970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A58914584%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0002764215613403&rft.aulast=Xifra&rft.aufirst=Jordi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-24" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFDunlap2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Dunlap 2013</a>: "Even though climate science has now firmly established that global warming is occurring, that human activities contribute to this warming ... a significant portion of the American public remains ambivalent or unconcerned, and many policymakers (especially in the United States) deny the necessity of taking steps to reduce carbon emissions ... From the outset, there has been an organized 'disinformation' campaign ... to generate skepticism and denial concerning AGW."</span></li><li id="cite_note-public-success-25" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-public-success_25-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-public-success_25-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "Despite a high degree of consensus amongst publishing climate researchers that global warming is occurring and that it is anthropogenic, this discourse, promoted largely by non-scientists, has had a significant impact on public perceptions of the issue, fostering the impression that elite opinion is divided as to the nature and extent of the threat."</span></li><li id="cite_note-NYT-20151105-26" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NYT-20151105_26-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NYT-20151105_26-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFEgan2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Egan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Timothy Egan">Egan, Timothy</a> (5 November 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/06/opinion/fossil-fools.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Exxon Mobil and the G.O.P.: Fossil Fools"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210815075740/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/06/opinion/fossil-fools.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">9 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Exxon+Mobil+and+the+G.O.P.%3A+Fossil+Fools&rft.date=2015-11-05&rft.aulast=Egan&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F11%2F06%2Fopinion%2Ffossil-fools.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-TG-20150708-27" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-TG-20150708_27-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-TG-20150708_27-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGoldenberg2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Goldenberg, Suzanne (8 July 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/08/exxon-climate-change-1981-climate-denier-funding" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Exxon knew of climate change in 1981, email says – but it funded deniers for 27 more years"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151116155511/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/08/exxon-climate-change-1981-climate-denier-funding" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">9 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Exxon+knew+of+climate+change+in+1981%2C+email+says+%E2%80%93+but+it+funded+deniers+for+27+more+years&rft.date=2015-07-08&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2015%2Fjul%2F08%2Fexxon-climate-change-1981-climate-denier-funding&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-28" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/feb/28/shell-knew-oil-giants-1991-film-warned-climate-change-danger" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">'Shell knew': oil giant's 1991 film warned of climate change danger</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170424174806/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/feb/28/shell-knew-oil-giants-1991-film-warned-climate-change-danger" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 24 April 2017 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The Guardian</i></span></li><li id="cite_note-29" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "'Climate skepticism' and 'climate denial' are readily used concepts, referring to a discourse that has become important in public debate since climate change was first put firmly on the policy agenda in 1988. This discourse challenges the views of mainstream climate scientists and environmental policy advocates, contending that parts, or all, of the scientific treatment and political interpretation of climate change are unreliable."</span></li><li id="cite_note-NCSE_2012_why-30" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSE_2012_why_30-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSE_2012_why_30-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFNational_Center_for_Science_Education2016" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">National Center for Science Education 2016</a>: "There is debate ... about how to refer to the positions that reject, and to the people who doubt or deny, the scientific community's consensus on ... climate change. Many such people prefer to call themselves skeptics and describe their position as climate change skepticism. Their opponents, however, often prefer to call such people climate change deniers and to describe their position as climate change denial ... 'Denial' is the term preferred even by many deniers."</span></li><li id="cite_note-Nerlich_2010-31" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Nerlich_2010_31-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFNerlich2010" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Nerlich 2010</a>, pp. 419, 437: "Climate scepticism in the sense of climate denialism or contrarianism is not a new phenomenon, but it has recently been very much in the media spotlight. ... Such disagreements are not new but the emails provided climate sceptics, in the sense of deniers or contrarians, with a golden opportunity to mount a sustained effort aimed at demonstrating the legitimacy of their views. This allowed them to question climate science and climate policies based on it and to promote political inaction and inertia. ... footnote 1. I shall use 'climate sceptics' here in the sense of 'climate deniers', although there are obvious differences between scepticism and denial (see Shermer, 2010; Kemp, et al., 2010). However, 'climate sceptic' and 'climate scepticism' were commonly used during the 'climategate' debate as meaning 'climate denier'."</span></li><li id="cite_note-32" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "Within the community of scientists and others concerned about anthropogenic climate change, those whom Inhofe calls skeptics are more commonly termed contrarians, naysayers and denialists."</span></li><li id="cite_note-33" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBrown1996" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Brown 1996</a>, pp. 9, 11 "Indeed, the 'skeptic' scientists<sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;">14</sup> were perceived to be all the more credible precisely <i>because</i> their views were contrary to the consensus of peer-reviewed science.<br />14. All scientists are skeptics because the scientific process demands continuing questioning. In this report, however, the scientists we refer to as 'skeptics' are those who have taken a highly visible public role in criticizing the scientific consensus on ozone depletion and climate change through publications and statements addressed more to the media and the public than to the scientific community."</span></li><li id="cite_note-34" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFGelbspan1998" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Gelbspan 1998</a>, pp. 69–70, 246 At 16 November 1995 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy">United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy</a> hearing, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat_Michaels" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pat Michaels">Pat Michaels</a> testified of "a small minority" opposing the IPCC assessment, and said "that the so-called skeptics were right".</span></li><li id="cite_note-35" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFAntilla2005" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Antilla 2005</a>, p. footnote 5</span></li><li id="cite_note-Gelbspan-36" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Gelbspan_36-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFGelbspan1995" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Gelbspan 1995</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-37" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "The term 'climate scepticism' emerged in around 1995, the year journalist Ross Gelbspan authored perhaps the first book focusing directly on what would retrospectively be understood as climate scepticism."</span></li><li id="cite_note-Gelbspan_1998-38" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Gelbspan_1998_38-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFGelbspan1998" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Gelbspan 1998</a> p. 3 "But some individuals do not want the public to know about the immediacy and extent of the climate threat. They have been waging a persistent campaign of denial and suppression that has been lamentably effective."<br />pp. 33–34 "The campaign to keep the climate change off the public agenda involves more than the undisclosed funding of these 'greenhouse skeptics.' In their efforts to challenge the consensus scientific view ".<br />p. 35 "If the climate skeptics have succeeded in confusing the general public, their influence on decision makers has been, if anything, even more effective"<br />p. 173 "pervasive denial of global warming"</span></li><li id="cite_note-39" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFCBC_News:_the_fifth_estate2007" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">CBC News: the fifth estate 2007</a>: "<i>The Denial Machine</i> investigates the roots of the campaign to negate the science and the threat of global warming. It tracks the activities of a group of scientists, some of whom previously consulted for Big Tobacco, and who are now receiving donations from major coal and oil companies. ... The documentary shows how fossil fuel corporations have kept the global warming debate alive long after most scientists believed that global warming was real and had potentially catastrophic consequences. ... <i>The Denial Machine</i> also explores how the arguments supported by oil companies were adopted by policy makers in both Canada and the U.S. and helped form government policy."</span></li><li id="cite_note-Orlóci_Denial_Machine-40" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Orl%C3%B3ci_Denial_Machine_40-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Orl%C3%B3ci_Denial_Machine_40-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFOrl%C3%B3ci2008" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Orlóci 2008</a>, pp. 86, 97: "The ideological justification for this came from the sceptics (e.g., Lomborg 2001a,b) and from the industrial 'denial machine'. ... CBC Television Fifth Estate, 15 November 2006, The Climate Denial Machine, Canada.</span></li><li id="cite_note-Begley_machine-41" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Begley_machine_41-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Begley_machine_41-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBegley2007" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Begley 2007</a>: "If you think those who have long challenged the mainstream scientific findings about global warming recognize that the game is over, think again. ... outside Hollywood, Manhattan and other habitats of the chattering classes, the denial machine is running at full throttle—and continuing to shape both government policy and public opinion. Since the late 1980s, this well-coordinated, well-funded campaign by contrarian scientists, free-market think tanks and industry has created a paralyzing fog of doubt around climate change. Through advertisements, op-eds, lobbying and media attention, greenhouse doubters (they hate being called deniers) argued first that the world is not warming; measurements indicating otherwise are flawed, they said. Then they claimed that any warming is natural, not caused by human activities. Now they contend that the looming warming will be minuscule and harmless. 'They patterned what they did after the tobacco industry,' says former senator Tim Wirth"</span></li><li id="cite_note-Norgaard_2011-42" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Norgaard_2011_42-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFNorgaard2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kari_Norgaard" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kari Norgaard">Norgaard, Kari</a> (2011). <i>Living in Denial: Climate Change, Emotions, and Everyday Life</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 1–4. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01544-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01544-8"><bdi>978-0-262-01544-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+in+Denial%3A+Climate+Change%2C+Emotions%2C+and+Everyday+Life&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=1-4&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-262-01544-8&rft.aulast=Norgaard&rft.aufirst=Kari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Washington_p2-43" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Washington_p2_43-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWashington2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Washington 2013</a>, p. 2: "Many climate change deniers call themselves climate 'skeptics' ... However, refusing to accept the overwhelming 'preponderance of evidence' is not skepticism, it is <i>denial</i> and should be called by its true name ... The use of the term 'climate skeptic' is a distortion of reality ... Skepticism is healthy in both science and society; denial is not."</span></li><li id="cite_note-O'Neill_Boykoff_2010-44" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-O'Neill_Boykoff_2010_44-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-O'Neill_Boykoff_2010_44-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFO'NeillBoykoff2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">O'Neill, Saffron J.; Boykoff, Max (28 September 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2947866" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate denier, skeptic, or contrarian?"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>107</b> (39): E151. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107E.151O" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2010PNAS..107E.151O</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1010507107" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.1010507107</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0027-8424</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2947866" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2947866</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20807754" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20807754</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Using the language of denialism brings a moralistic tone into the climate change debate that we would do well to avoid. Further, labeling views as denialist has the potential to inappropriately link such views with Holocaust denial ... However, skepticism forms an integral part of the scientific method and thus the term is frequently misapplied in such phrases as "climate change skeptic".</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Climate+denier%2C+skeptic%2C+or+contrarian%3F&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=39&rft.pages=E151&rft.date=2010-09-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2947866%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..107E.151O&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20807754&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1010507107&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=Saffron+J.&rft.au=Boykoff%2C+Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2947866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-45" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFMann2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Mann, Michael E. (2013). <i>The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars: Dispatches from the Front Lines</i>. Columbia University Press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52638-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52638-8"><bdi>978-0-231-52638-8</bdi></a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Skepticism plays an essential role in the progress of science ... Yet ... in the context of the climate change denial movement ... the term <i>skeptic</i> has often been co-opted to describe those who simply deny, rather than appraise critically.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hockey+Stick+and+the+Climate+Wars%3A+Dispatches+from+the+Front+Lines&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-231-52638-8&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-46" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFJenkins2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Jenkins 2015</a>, p. 229: "many who deny the consensus on climate change are not really skeptics but rather contrarians who practice "a kind of one-sided skepticism that entails simply rejecting evidence that challenges one's preconceptions" (Mann 2012:26)"</span></li><li id="cite_note-NCSEpreference-47" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSEpreference_47-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSEpreference_47-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFNational_Center_for_Science_Education2016" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">National Center for Science Education 2016</a>: "Recognizing that no terminological choice is entirely unproblematic, NCSE—in common with a number of scholarly and journalistic observers of the social controversies surrounding climate change—opts to use the terms "climate change deniers" and "climate change denial. The terms are intended descriptively, not in any pejorative sense, and are used for the sake of brevity and consistency with a well-established usage in the scholarly and journalistic literature."</span></li><li id="cite_note-48" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015</a>, <cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150210183643/http://www.aip.org:80/history/climate/public2.htm#N_136a_" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Public and Climate, cont. footnote 136a"</a>. <i>aip.org</i>. 10 February 2015. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/climate/public2.htm#N_136a_" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 10 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">18 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aip.org&rft.atitle=The+Public+and+Climate%2C+cont.+footnote+136a&rft.date=2015-02-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%3A80%2Fhistory%2Fclimate%2Fpublic2.htm%23N_136a_&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span>: "I do not mean to use the term 'denier' pejoratively—it has been accepted by some of the group as a self-description—but simply to designate those who deny any likelihood of future danger from anthropogenic global warming."</span></li><li id="cite_note-Anderegg_Prall_E152-49" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Anderegg_Prall_E152_49-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAndereggPrallHarold2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Anderegg, William R. L.; Prall, James W.; Harold, Jacob (19 July 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2947900" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Reply to O'Neill and Boykoff: Objective classification of climate experts"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>107</b> (39): E152. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107E.152A" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2010PNAS..107E.152A</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1010824107" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.1010824107</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0027-8424</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2947900" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2947900</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Reply+to+O%27Neill+and+Boykoff%3A+Objective+classification+of+climate+experts&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=39&rft.pages=E152&rft.date=2010-07-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2947900%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1010824107&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..107E.152A&rft.aulast=Anderegg&rft.aufirst=William+R.+L.&rft.au=Prall%2C+James+W.&rft.au=Harold%2C+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2947900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-VerbalWarming-50" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-VerbalWarming_50-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-VerbalWarming_50-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGillis2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Gillis, Justin (12 February 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/17/science/earth/in-climate-change-whats-in-a-name.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Verbal Warming: Labels in the Climate Debate"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211030013627/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/17/science/earth/in-climate-change-whats-in-a-name.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">30 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Verbal+Warming%3A+Labels+in+the+Climate+Debate&rft.date=2015-02-12&rft.aulast=Gillis&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F02%2F17%2Fscience%2Fearth%2Fin-climate-change-whats-in-a-name.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Timmer_HIV-51" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Timmer_HIV_51-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFTimmer2014" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Timmer 2014</a>: "some of the people who deserve that label are offended by it, thinking it somehow lumps them in with Holocaust deniers. But that in its own way is a form of denial; the word came into use before the Holocaust, and ... denialism has been used as a label for people who refuse to accept the evidence for all sorts of things: HIV causing AIDS, vaccines being safe, etc."</span></li><li id="cite_note-CSI_open_letter-52" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-CSI_open_letter_52-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBoslough2014" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Boslough 2014</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-MMfA_20150622-53" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-MMfA_20150622_53-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFSeifterStrupp2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Seifter, Andrew; Strupp, Joe (22 June 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.mediamatters.org/new-york-times/ny-times-public-editor-were-moving-good-direction-properly-describing-climate" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"NY Times Public Editor: We're 'Moving In A Good Direction' On Properly Describing Climate Deniers"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Matters_for_America" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Media Matters for America">Media Matters for America</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190423123917/https://www.mediamatters.org/blog/2015/06/22/ny-times-public-editor-were-moving-in-a-good-di/204089" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Media+Matters+for+America&rft.atitle=NY+Times+Public+Editor%3A+We%27re+%27Moving+In+A+Good+Direction%27+On+Properly+Describing+Climate+Deniers&rft.date=2015-06-22&rft.aulast=Seifter&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Strupp%2C+Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mediamatters.org%2Fnew-york-times%2Fny-times-public-editor-were-moving-good-direction-properly-describing-climate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Petition-54" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Petition_54-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://act.forecastthefacts.org/sign/ap_deniers_skeptics/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"AP: Deniers Are Not Skeptics!"</a>. <i>Oil Change U.S</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C." style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210505144011/https://act.forecastthefacts.org/sign/ap_deniers_skeptics/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 May</span>2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oil+Change+U.S.&rft.atitle=AP%3A+Deniers+Are+Not+Skeptics%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fact.forecastthefacts.org%2Fsign%2Fap_deniers_skeptics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-APStyleBook-55" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-APStyleBook_55-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFColford2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Colford, Paul (22 September 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://blog.ap.org/announcements/an-addition-to-ap-stylebook-entry-on-global-warming" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"An addition to AP Stylebook entry on global warming"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 October</span>2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Associated+Press&rft.atitle=An+addition+to+AP+Stylebook+entry+on+global+warming&rft.date=2015-09-22&rft.aulast=Colford&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.ap.org%2Fannouncements%2Fan-addition-to-ap-stylebook-entry-on-global-warming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-RealSkeptics-56" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-RealSkeptics_56-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFSchlanger2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Schlanger, Zoë (24 September 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.newsweek.com/associated-press-climate-skeptic-climate-denier-stylebook-center-skeptical-376197" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The real skeptics behind the AP decision to put an end to the term 'climate skeptics'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601185733/https://www.newsweek.com/associated-press-climate-skeptic-climate-denier-stylebook-center-skeptical-376197" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=The+real+skeptics+behind+the+AP+decision+to+put+an+end+to+the+term+%27climate+skeptics%27&rft.date=2015-09-24&rft.aulast=Schlanger&rft.aufirst=Zo%C3%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fassociated-press-climate-skeptic-climate-denier-stylebook-center-skeptical-376197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-GuardianDenier-57" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-GuardianDenier_57-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFCarrington2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Carrington, Damian (17 May 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/17/why-the-guardian-is-changing-the-language-it-uses-about-the-environment" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Why The Guardian is changing the language it uses about the environment"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191006183640/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/17/why-the-guardian-is-changing-the-language-it-uses-about-the-environment" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Why+The+Guardian+is+changing+the+language+it+uses+about+the+environment&rft.date=2019-05-17&rft.aulast=Carrington&rft.aufirst=Damian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2019%2Fmay%2F17%2Fwhy-the-guardian-is-changing-the-language-it-uses-about-the-environment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-58" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-58" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foote, Eunice, 1856. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230223113925/https://ia800802.us.archive.org/4/items/mobot31753002152491/mobot31753002152491.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Circumstances affecting the heat of the Sun's rays</a>": Art. XXXI, <i>The American Journal of Science and Arts,</i> 2nd Series, v. XXII/no. LXVI, November 1856, p. 382-383.</span></li><li id="cite_note-conwayoreskes170-59" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-conwayoreskes170_59-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFConwayOreskes2010" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Conway & Oreskes 2010</a>, p. 170: "The doubts and confusion of the American people are particularly peculiar when put into historical perspective"</span></li><li id="cite_note-powell36-60" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-powell36_60-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPowell2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Powell 2012</a>, pp. 36–39</span></li><li id="cite_note-61" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015a" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015a</a>: "From the late 1940s into the 1960s, many of the papers cited in these essays carried a thought-provoking footnote: "This work was supported by the '<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Research" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Office of Naval Research">Office of Naval Research</a>.' "</span></li><li id="cite_note-62" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-62" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2007" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2007</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-63" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015a" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015a</a>: quote p. viii in the Foreword by Climate Research Board chair <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verner_E._Suomi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Verner E. Suomi">Verner E. Suomi</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-64" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-64" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFCharney1979" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jule_Gregory_Charney" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jule Gregory Charney">Charney, Jule Gregory</a> (23 July 1979). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12181/carbon-dioxide-and-climate-a-scientific-assessment" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Carbon Dioxide and Climate: A Scientific Assessment, Report of an Ad Hoc Study Group on Carbon Dioxide and Climate</i></a>. Woods Hole, MA: <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F12181" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.17226/12181</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-11910-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-11910-8"><bdi>978-0-309-11910-8</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200222003138/https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12181/carbon-dioxide-and-climate-a-scientific-assessment" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carbon+Dioxide+and+Climate%3A+A+Scientific+Assessment%2C+Report+of+an+Ad+Hoc+Study+Group+on+Carbon+Dioxide+and+Climate&rft.place=Woods+Hole%2C+MA&rft.pub=National+Research+Council&rft.date=1979-07-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F12181&rft.isbn=978-0-309-11910-8&rft.aulast=Charney&rft.aufirst=Jule+Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog%2F12181%2Fcarbon-dioxide-and-climate-a-scientific-assessment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-65" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-65" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFHudson2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hudson, March (2016). <a class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/us-firms-knew-about-global-warming-in-1968-what-about-australia-57878" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"US firms knew about global warming in 1968 – what about Australia?"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011534/https://theconversation.com/us-firms-knew-about-global-warming-in-1968-what-about-australia-57878" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">19 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=US+firms+knew+about+global+warming+in+1968+%E2%80%93+what+about+Australia%3F&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=March&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fus-firms-knew-about-global-warming-in-1968-what-about-australia-57878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-HuffPost_Coal_Knew_Too-66" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-HuffPost_Coal_Knew_Too_66-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-HuffPost_Coal_Knew_Too_66-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFYoung2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Young, Élan (22 November 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/coal-industry-climate-change_n_5dd6bbebe4b0e29d7280984f" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Coal Knew, Too, A Newly Unearthed Journal from 1966 Shows the Coal Industry, Like the Oil Industry, Was Long Aware of the Threat of Climate Change"</a>. <i>Huffington Post</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200222082535/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/coal-industry-climate-change_n_5dd6bbebe4b0e29d7280984f" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=Coal+Knew%2C+Too%2C+A+Newly+Unearthed+Journal+from+1966+Shows+the+Coal+Industry%2C+Like+the+Oil+Industry%2C+Was+Long+Aware+of+the+Threat+of+Climate+Change&rft.date=2019-11-22&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=%C3%89lan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffpost.com%2Fentry%2Fcoal-industry-climate-change_n_5dd6bbebe4b0e29d7280984f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-67" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-67" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFPattee2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Pattee, Emma (14 June 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/14/1977-us-presidential-memo-predicted-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The 1977 White House climate memo that should have changed the world"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">14 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+1977+White+House+climate+memo+that+should+have+changed+the+world&rft.date=2022-06-14&rft.aulast=Pattee&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2022%2Fjun%2F14%2F1977-us-presidential-memo-predicted-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-68" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-68" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015a" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015a</a>: <a class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history/climate/Govt.htm#S7" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Global Warming Becomes a Political Issue (1980–1983)</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629213628/https://www.aip.org/history/climate/Govt.htm#S7" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 29 June 2016 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; "In 1981, Ronald Reagan took the presidency with an administration that openly scorned their concerns. He brought with him a backlash that had been building against the environmental movement. Many conservatives denied nearly every environmental worry, global warming included. They lumped all such concerns together as the rants of business-hating liberals, a Trojan Horse for government regulation." For details, see <a class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history/climate/Kfunds.htm#M_29_" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Money for Keeling: Monitoring CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span></a><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629213628/https://www.aip.org/history/climate/Govt.htm#M_29_" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 29 June 2016 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-69" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-69" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFWeart2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Weart, Spencer R. (2009). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qX8yCpETS-IC&pg=PA141" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Discovery of Global Warming</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04497-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04497-5"><bdi>978-0-674-04497-5</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601211616/https://books.google.com/books?id=qX8yCpETS-IC&pg=PA141" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+Global+Warming&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-04497-5&rft.aulast=Weart&rft.aufirst=Spencer+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqX8yCpETS-IC%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-70" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-70" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015</a>: <a class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history/climate/public2.htm#L_0400" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Breaking into Politics (1980–1988)</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629155458/https://www.aip.org/history/climate/public2.htm#L_0400" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 29 June 2016 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, "Sherwood Idso, who published arguments that greenhouse gas emissions would not warm the Earth or bring any other harm to the climate. Better still, by fertilizing crops, the increase of CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> would bring tremendous benefits."</span></li><li id="cite_note-Hansen_testimony-71" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Hansen_testimony_71-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFHansen1988" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hansen, James (1988). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110822055700/http://climatechange.procon.org/sourcefiles/1988_Hansen_Senate_Testimony.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Statement of Dr. James Hansen, director, NASA Goddard Institute for space studies"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Climate Change ProCon.org</i>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://climatechange.procon.org/sourcefiles/1988_Hansen_Senate_Testimony.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> on 22 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">30 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Climate+Change+ProCon.org&rft.atitle=Statement+of+Dr.+James+Hansen%2C+director%2C+NASA+Goddard+Institute+for+space+studies&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclimatechange.procon.org%2Fsourcefiles%2F1988_Hansen_Senate_Testimony.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-72" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-72" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFShabecoff1988" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Shabecoff, Philip (24 June 1988). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/06/24/us/global-warming-has-begun-expert-tells-senate.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Global Warming Has Begun, Expert Tells Senate"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Global+Warming+Has+Begun%2C+Expert+Tells+Senate&rft.date=1988-06-24&rft.aulast=Shabecoff&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1988%2F06%2F24%2Fus%2Fglobal-warming-has-begun-expert-tells-senate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-earlyconsensus-73" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-earlyconsensus_73-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history/climate/public2.htm#S1988" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">The Summer of 1988</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629155458/https://www.aip.org/history/climate/public2.htm#S1988" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 29 June 2016 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: "A new breed of interdisciplinary studies was showing that even a few degrees of warming might have harsh consequences, both for fragile natural ecosystems and for certain agricultural systems and other human endeavours ... The timing was right, and the media leaped on the story. Hansen's statements, especially that severe warming was likely within the next 50 years, got on the front pages of newspapers and were featured in television news and radio talk shows ... The story grew as the summer of 1988 wore on. Reporters descended unexpectedly upon an international conference of scientists held in Toronto at the end of June. Their stories prominently reported how the world's leading climate scientists declared that atmospheric changes were already causing harm, and might cause much more; the scientists called for vigorous government action to restrict greenhouse gases."</span></li><li id="cite_note-74" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-74" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015</a>: "Environmentalist organizations continued ... lobbying and advertising efforts to argue for restrictions on emissions. The environmentalists were opposed and greatly outspent, by industries that produced or relied on fossil fuels. Industry groups not only mounted a sustained and professional public relations effort but also channeled considerable sums of money to individual scientists and small conservative organizations and publications that denied any need to act against global warming."</span></li><li id="cite_note-tobacco-approach-75" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-tobacco-approach_75-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-tobacco-approach_75-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-tobacco-approach_75-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-tobacco-approach_75-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBegley2007" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Begley 2007</a>: "Through advertisements, op-eds, lobbying and media attention, greenhouse doubters (they hate being called deniers) argued first that the world is not warming ... Then they claimed that any warming is natural ... Now they contend that the looming warming will be minuscule and harmless. 'They patterned what they did after the tobacco industry,' says former senator Tim Wirth ... 'Both figured, sow enough doubt, call the science uncertain and in dispute. That's had a huge impact on both the public and Congress.'"</span></li><li id="cite_note-marshall-76" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-marshall_76-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-marshall_76-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015</a>: "The technical criticism most widely noted in the press came in several brief 'reports'—not scientific papers in the usual sense—published between 1989 and 1992 by the conservative George C. Marshall Institute. The anonymously authored pamphlets ... [claimed] that proposed government regulation would be 'extraordinarily costly to the U.S. economy,' they insisted it would be unwise to act on the basis of the existing global warming theories ... In 1989 some of the biggest corporations in the petroleum, automotive, and other industries created a Global Climate Coalition, whose mission was to disparage every call for action against global warming."</span></li><li id="cite_note-tobacco-docs-77" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-tobacco-docs_77-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-tobacco-docs_77-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFConwayOreskes2010" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Conway & Oreskes 2010</a>: "Millions of pages of documents released during tobacco litigation ... show the crucial role that scientists played in sowing doubt about the links between smoking and health risks. These documents ... also show that the same strategy was applied not only to global warming, but to a laundry list of environmental and health concerns, including asbestos, secondhand smoke, acid rain, and the ozone hole."</span></li><li id="cite_note-78" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-78" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015</a>: "Scientists noticed something that the public largely overlooked: the most outspoken scientific critiques of global warming predictions did not appear in the standard peer-reviewed scientific publications. The critiques tended to appear in venues funded by industrial groups, or in conservative media like the Wall Street Journal."</span></li><li id="cite_note-merchants_of_doubt-79" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-merchants_of_doubt_79-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-merchants_of_doubt_79-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFConwayOreskes2010" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Conway & Oreskes 2010</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-Weart_p46-80" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Weart_p46_80-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2011</a>, p. 46: "Scientists continually test their beliefs, seeking out all possible contrary arguments and evidence, and finally publish their findings in peer-reviewed journals, where further attempts at refutation are encouraged. But the small group of scientists who opposed the consensus on warming proceeded in the manner of lawyers, considering nothing that would not bolster their case, and publishing mostly in pamphlets, books, and newspapers supported by conservative interests. At some point they were no longer skeptics—people who would try to see every side of a case—but deniers, that is, people whose only interest was in casting doubt upon what other scientists agreed was true."</span></li><li id="cite_note-81" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-81" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2011</a>, p. 47: "As the deniers found ever less scientific ground to stand on, they turned to political arguments. Some of these policy arguments were straightforward, raising serious questions about the efficacy and expense of proposed carbon taxes and emission-regulation schemes. But leading deniers also resorted to ad hominem tactics ... On each side, some people were coming to believe that they faced a dishonest conspiracy, driven by ideological bias and naked self-interest".</span></li><li id="cite_note-82" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-82" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFJacquesDunlapFreeman2008" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Jacques, Dunlap & Freeman 2008</a>, pp. 349–385: "Environmental skepticism encompasses several themes, but denial of the authenticity of environmental problems, particularly problems such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> or climate change that threaten ecological sustainability, is its defining feature"</span></li><li id="cite_note-requiem-83" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-requiem_83-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-requiem_83-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFHamilton2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Hamilton 2011</a>, pp. 104–106): "the tactics, personnel, and organisations mobilised to serve the interests of the tobacco lobby in the 1980s were seamlessly transferred to serve the interests of the fossil-fuel lobby in the 1990s. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a> ... the task of the climate sceptics in the think tanks and PR companies hired by fossil fuel companies was to engage in 'consciousness lowering activities', to 'de-problematise' global warming by describing it as a form of politically driven panicmongering." For the tobacco company memo, see <cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wjh13f00" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Original "Doubt is our product ..." memo"</a>. University of California, San Francisco. 21 August 1969. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402124027/http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wjh13f00" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">19 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Original+%22Doubt+is+our+product+...%22+memo&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+San+Francisco&rft.date=1969-08-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flegacy.library.ucsf.edu%2Ftid%2Fwjh13f00&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-84" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-84" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFConwayOreskes2010" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Conway & Oreskes 2010</a>, p. 105: "As recently as 2007, the George Marshall Institute continued to insist that the damages associated with acid rain were always 'largely hypothetical,' and that 'further scientific investigation revealed that most of them were not in fact occurring.' The Institute cited no studies to support this extraordinary claim."</span></li><li id="cite_note-85" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-85" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015</a>: "Public support for environmental concerns, in general, seems to have waned after 1988."</span></li><li id="cite_note-86" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-86" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFWeart2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Weart 2015</a>: "A study of American media found that in 1987 most items that mentioned the greenhouse effect had been feature stories about the science, whereas in 1988 the majority of the stories addressed the politics of the controversy. It was not that the number of science stories declined, but rather that as media coverage doubled and redoubled, the additional stories moved into social and political areas ... Before 1988, the journalists had drawn chiefly on scientists for their information, but afterward, they relied chiefly on sources who were identified with political positions or special interest groups."</span></li><li id="cite_note-87" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-87" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFWald1991" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wald, Matthew L. (8 July 1991). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/08/business/pro-coal-ad-campaign-disputes-warming-idea.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Pro-Coal Ad Campaign Disputes Warming Idea"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814053921/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/08/business/pro-coal-ad-campaign-disputes-warming-idea.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">1 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Pro-Coal+Ad+Campaign+Disputes+Warming+Idea&rft.date=1991-07-08&rft.aulast=Wald&rft.aufirst=Matthew+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1991%2F07%2F08%2Fbusiness%2Fpro-coal-ad-campaign-disputes-warming-idea.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-88" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-88" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBegley2007" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Begley 2007</a>: "Individual companies and industry associations—representing petroleum, steel, autos, and utilities, for instance—formed lobbying groups ... [the Information Council on the Environment's] game plan called for enlisting greenhouse doubters to 'reposition global warming as theory rather than fact,' and to sow doubt about climate research just as cigarette makers had about smoking research ... The coal industry's Western Fuels Association paid Michaels to produce a newsletter called World Climate Report, which has regularly trashed mainstream climate science."</span></li><li id="cite_note-89" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-89" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFCox2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cox, Robert (2009). <i>Environmental Communication and the Public Sphere</i>. Sage. pp. 311–312. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">to recruit a cadre of scientists who share the industry's views of climate science and to train them in public relations so they can help convince journalists, politicians and the public that the risk of global warming is too uncertain to justify controls on greenhouse gases</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Communication+and+the+Public+Sphere&rft.pages=311-312&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-90" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-90" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cushman, John, <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/26/us/industrial-group-plans-to-battle-climate-treaty.html?scp=2&sq=climate%20science%20and%20to%20train%20them%20&st=cse&pagewanted=print" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Industrial Group Plans to Battle Climate Treaty"</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210703065053/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/26/us/industrial-group-plans-to-battle-climate-treaty.html?scp=2&sq=climate%20science%20and%20to%20train%20them%20&st=cse&pagewanted=print" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 3 July 2021 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The New York Times</i>, 25 April 1998. Retrieved 10 March 2010.</span></li><li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGelbspan19983,_35,_46,_197-91" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGelbspan19983,_35,_46,_197_91-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFGelbspan1998" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Gelbspan 1998</a>, pp. 3, 35, 46, 197.</span></li><li id="cite_note-MilburnConrad1998-92" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-MilburnConrad1998_92-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFMilburnConrad1998" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Milburn, Michael A.; Conrad, Sheree D. (1998). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ntVE1n3g51wC&pg=PA216" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Politics of Denial</i></a>. MIT Press. pp. 216–. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63184-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63184-6"><bdi>978-0-262-63184-6</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210322153353/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntVE1n3g51wC&pg=PA216" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 22 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">12 July</span> 2015</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Here again, as in the case of ozone depletion, economic and psychological forces are operating to produce a level of denial that threatens future generations.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Denial&rft.pages=216-&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-262-63184-6&rft.aulast=Milburn&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.au=Conrad%2C+Sheree+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DntVE1n3g51wC%26pg%3DPA216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-93" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-93" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "Academics took note of the discourse when they began to analyse media representations of climate change knowledge and its effect on public perceptions and policy-making, but in the 1990s, they did not yet focus on it as a coherent and defined phenomenon. This changed in the 2000s when McCright and Dunlap played an important role in deepening the concept of climate skepticism."</span></li><li id="cite_note-94" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-94" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "McCright and Dunlap played an important role in deepening the concept of climate skepticism. Examining what they termed a 'conservative countermovement' to undermine climate change policy ... McCright and Dunlap went beyond the study of media representations of climate change knowledge to give a coherent picture of the movement behind climate skepticism in the US."</span></li><li id="cite_note-95" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-95" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFJacquesDunlapFreeman2008" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Jacques, Dunlap & Freeman 2008</a>, pp. 349–385</span></li><li id="cite_note-Eric_Roston-96" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Eric_Roston_96-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Eric_Roston_96-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFEric_Roston2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Eric Roston (30 November 2015). <span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-11-30/unearthing-america-s-deep-network-of-climate-change-deniers" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Unearthing America's Deep Network of Climate Change Deniers"</a></span>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_News" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bloomberg News">Bloomberg News</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011740/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-11-30/unearthing-america-s-deep-network-of-climate-change-deniers" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">6 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg+News&rft.atitle=Unearthing+America%27s+Deep+Network+of+Climate+Change+Deniers&rft.date=2015-11-30&rft.au=Eric+Roston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2015-11-30%2Funearthing-america-s-deep-network-of-climate-change-deniers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Justin_Farrell-97" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Justin_Farrell_97-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Justin_Farrell_97-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFFarrell2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Farrell, Justin (2015). "Network structure and influence of the climate change counter-movement". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Climate_Change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nature Climate Change">Nature Climate Change</a></i>. <b>6</b> (4): 370–374. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatCC...6..370F" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2016NatCC...6..370F</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnclimate2875" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/nclimate2875</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18207833" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">18207833</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Network+structure+and+influence+of+the+climate+change+counter-movement&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=370-374&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18207833%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnclimate2875&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatCC...6..370F&rft.aulast=Farrell&rft.aufirst=Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-KingsCollegeReport_20220629-98" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-KingsCollegeReport_20220629_98-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://peritia-trust.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/4-Climate-change_EU.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Public perceptions on climate change"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>PERITIA Trust EU - The Policy Institute of Kings College London</i>. June 2022. p. 4. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220715062933/https://peritia-trust.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/4-Climate-change_EU.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 15 July 2022.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PERITIA+Trust+EU+-+The+Policy+Institute+of+Kings+College+London&rft.atitle=Public+perceptions+on+climate+change&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2022-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fperitia-trust.eu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F06%2F4-Climate-change_EU.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Powell_2019-99" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Powell_2019_99-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFPowell2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Powell, James (20 November 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0270467619886266?journalCode=bsta" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Scientists Reach 100% Consensus on Anthropogenic Global Warming"</a>. <i>Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society</i>. <b>37</b> (4): 183–184. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0270467619886266" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0270467619886266</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213454806" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">213454806</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Science%2C+Technology+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Scientists+Reach+100%25+Consensus+on+Anthropogenic+Global+Warming&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=183-184&rft.date=2019-11-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0270467619886266&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213454806%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1177%2F0270467619886266%3FjournalCode%3Dbsta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Lynas_2021-100" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Lynas_2021_100-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLynasHoultonPerry2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lynas, Mark; Houlton, Benjamin Z.; Perry, Simon (19 October 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2966" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Greater than 99% consensus on human caused climate change in the peer-reviewed scientific literature"</a>. <i>Environmental Research Letters</i>. <b>16</b> (11): 114005. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ERL....16k4005L" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2021ERL....16k4005L</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2966" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1088/1748-9326/ac2966</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239032360" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">239032360</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Greater+than+99%25+consensus+on+human+caused+climate+change+in+the+peer-reviewed+scientific+literature&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=114005&rft.date=2021-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239032360%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2966&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021ERL....16k4005L&rft.aulast=Lynas&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Houlton%2C+Benjamin+Z.&rft.au=Perry%2C+Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1748-9326%252Fac2966&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-101" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-101" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMyersDoranCookKotcher2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Myers, Krista F.; Doran, Peter T.; Cook, John; Kotcher, John E.; Myers, Teresa A. (20 October 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2774" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Consensus revisited: quantifying scientific agreement on climate change and climate expertise among Earth scientists 10 years later"</a>. <i>Environmental Research Letters</i>. <b>16</b> (10): 104030. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ERL....16j4030M" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2021ERL....16j4030M</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2774" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1088/1748-9326/ac2774</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239047650" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">239047650</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Consensus+revisited%3A+quantifying+scientific+agreement+on+climate+change+and+climate+expertise+among+Earth+scientists+10+years+later&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=104030&rft.date=2021-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239047650%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fac2774&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021ERL....16j4030M&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Krista+F.&rft.au=Doran%2C+Peter+T.&rft.au=Cook%2C+John&rft.au=Kotcher%2C+John+E.&rft.au=Myers%2C+Teresa+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1748-9326%252Fac2774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-NatureComms_20220823-102" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NatureComms_20220823_102-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSparkmanGeigerWeber2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sparkman, Gregg; Geiger, Nathan; Weber, Elke U. (23 August 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9399177" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Americans experience a false social reality by underestimating popular climate policy support by nearly half"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 4779 (fig. 3). <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NatCo..13.4779S" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2022NatCo..13.4779S</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-022-32412-y" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41467-022-32412-y</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9399177" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">9399177</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35999211" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">35999211</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Americans+experience+a+false+social+reality+by+underestimating+popular+climate+policy+support+by+nearly+half&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4779+%28fig.+3%29&rft.date=2022-08-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9399177%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35999211&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-022-32412-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022NatCo..13.4779S&rft.aulast=Sparkman&rft.aufirst=Gregg&rft.au=Geiger%2C+Nathan&rft.au=Weber%2C+Elke+U.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9399177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-103" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-103" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFYoder2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Yoder, Kate (29 August 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://grist.org/politics/americans-think-climate-action-unpopular-wrong-study/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Americans are convinced climate action is unpopular. They're very, very wrong. / Support for climate policies is double what most people think, a new study found"</a>. <i>Grist</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220829104543/https://grist.org/politics/americans-think-climate-action-unpopular-wrong-study/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2022.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grist&rft.atitle=Americans+are+convinced+climate+action+is+unpopular.+They%27re+very%2C+very+wrong.+%2F+Support+for+climate+policies+is+double+what+most+people+think%2C+a+new+study+found.&rft.date=2022-08-29&rft.aulast=Yoder&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgrist.org%2Fpolitics%2Famericans-think-climate-action-unpopular-wrong-study%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Gelbspan_2004-104" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Gelbspan_2004_104-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFGelbspan2004" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Gelbspan, Ross (22 July 2004). <a class="external text" href="http://grist.org/article/gelbspan-boiling/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"An excerpt from Boiling Point by Ross Gelbspan"</a>. <i>Grist</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011301/https://grist.org/article/gelbspan-boiling/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">1 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grist&rft.atitle=An+excerpt+from+Boiling+Point+by+Ross+Gelbspan&rft.date=2004-07-22&rft.aulast=Gelbspan&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrist.org%2Farticle%2Fgelbspan-boiling%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-White2012-105" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-White2012_105-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFWayne_A._White2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wayne A. White (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uif0DF0rFwMC&pg=PA206" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Biosequestration and Ecological Diversity: Mitigating and Adapting to Climate Change and Environmental Degradation</i></a>. CRC Press. p. 206. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5363-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5363-4"><bdi>978-1-4398-5363-4</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601201058/https://books.google.com/books?id=uif0DF0rFwMC&pg=PA206" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">12 July</span> 2015</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Climate change denial and discrediting climate science have become pivotal to the antiregulatory cause of neoliberals.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biosequestration+and+Ecological+Diversity%3A+Mitigating+and+Adapting+to+Climate+Change+and+Environmental+Degradation&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-5363-4&rft.au=Wayne+A.+White&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duif0DF0rFwMC%26pg%3DPA206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-106" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-106" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFAntilla2005" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Antilla 2005</a>: "At the centre of this climate backlash is a group of dissident scientists. The number of these climate skeptics is greater in the US than in any other country. Although the peer-reviewed scientific literature agrees with the IPCC, within the media—wherefrom the majority of adults in the US are informed about science—claims that are dismissive of anthropogenic climate change are prominently featured."</span></li><li id="cite_note-107" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-107" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFJenkins2015" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Jenkins 2015</a>, p. 243: "the community of climate change contrarians also includes a host of amateurs, from talk radio hosts to newspaper columnists to bloggers. In particular, the tremendous growth of the Internet has given sustenance to the contrarian movement"</span></li><li id="cite_note-108" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-108" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFNuccitelli2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Nuccitelli, Dana (2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2015/dec/14/the-paris-agreement-signals-that-deniers-have-lost-the-climate-wars" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Paris agreement signals that deniers have lost the climate wars"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211004150931/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2015/dec/14/the-paris-agreement-signals-that-deniers-have-lost-the-climate-wars" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">11 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+Paris+agreement+signals+that+deniers+have+lost+the+climate+wars&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Nuccitelli&rft.aufirst=Dana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fclimate-consensus-97-per-cent%2F2015%2Fdec%2F14%2Fthe-paris-agreement-signals-that-deniers-have-lost-the-climate-wars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-NYT-20151212-109" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NYT-20151212_109-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFDavenport2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Davenport, Coral (12 December 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/world/europe/climate-change-accord-paris.html?_r=0" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Nations Approve Landmark Climate Accord in Paris"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211105144857/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/world/europe/climate-change-accord-paris.html?_r=0" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">15 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nations+Approve+Landmark+Climate+Accord+in+Paris&rft.date=2015-12-12&rft.aulast=Davenport&rft.aufirst=Coral&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F12%2F13%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fclimate-change-accord-paris.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-110" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-110" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFWatts2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Watts, Jonathan (15 November 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/15/brazil-foreign-minister-ernesto-araujo-climate-change-marxist-plot" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Brazil's new foreign minister believes climate change is a Marxist plot"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0261-3077</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191113045658/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/15/brazil-foreign-minister-ernesto-araujo-climate-change-marxist-plot" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">25 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Brazil%27s+new+foreign+minister+believes+climate+change+is+a+Marxist+plot&rft.date=2018-11-15&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2018%2Fnov%2F15%2Fbrazil-foreign-minister-ernesto-araujo-climate-change-marxist-plot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-111" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-111" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFEscobar2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Escobar, Herton (22 January 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/brazil-s-new-president-has-scientists-worried-here-s-why" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Brazil's new president has scientists worried. Here's why"</a>. <i>Science | AAAS</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190125183232/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/01/brazil-s-new-president-has-scientists-worried-here-s-why" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">25 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+%7C+AAAS&rft.atitle=Brazil%27s+new+president+has+scientists+worried.+Here%27s+why&rft.date=2019-01-22&rft.aulast=Escobar&rft.aufirst=Herton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fbrazil-s-new-president-has-scientists-worried-here-s-why&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-PhysOrg_20230513-112" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-PhysOrg_20230513_112-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-PhysOrg_20230513_112-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFParryReyLabordaTan2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Parry, Roland Lloyd; Rey, Benedicte; Laborda, Adria; Tan, Kate (13 May 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2023-05-meteorologists-climate-misinfo-surge.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Meteorologists targeted in climate misinfo surge"</a>. Phys.org. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230513180614/https://phys.org/news/2023-05-meteorologists-climate-misinfo-surge.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Meteorologists+targeted+in+climate+misinfo+surge&rft.date=2023-05-13&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=Roland+Lloyd&rft.au=Rey%2C+Benedicte&rft.au=Laborda%2C+Adria&rft.au=Tan%2C+Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2023-05-meteorologists-climate-misinfo-surge.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-CNN_20230527-113" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-CNN_20230527_113-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-CNN_20230527_113-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFPaddison2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Paddison, Laura (27 May 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/27/world/meteorologists-conspiracy-harassment-abuse-climate-intl/index.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"<span class="cs1-kern-left" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"></span>'Murderers' and 'criminals': Meteorologists face unprecedented harassment from conspiracy theorists"</a>. CNN. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230604045906/https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/27/world/meteorologists-conspiracy-harassment-abuse-climate-intl/index.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27Murderers%27+and+%27criminals%27%3A+Meteorologists+face+unprecedented+harassment+from+conspiracy+theorists&rft.date=2023-05-27&rft.aulast=Paddison&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2023%2F05%2F27%2Fworld%2Fmeteorologists-conspiracy-harassment-abuse-climate-intl%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Guardian_20230514-114" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Guardian_20230514_114-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFFazackerley2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Fazackerley, Anna (14 May 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/may/14/climate-crisis-deniers-target-scientists-abuse-musk-twitter" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate crisis deniers target scientists for vicious abuse on Musk's Twitter"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230514155047/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/may/14/climate-crisis-deniers-target-scientists-abuse-musk-twitter" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Climate+crisis+deniers+target+scientists+for+vicious+abuse+on+Musk%27s+Twitter&rft.date=2023-05-14&rft.aulast=Fazackerley&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2023%2Fmay%2F14%2Fclimate-crisis-deniers-target-scientists-abuse-musk-twitter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-denial_industry-115" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-denial_industry_115-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFReadfearn2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Readfearn, Graham (5 March 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/planet-oz/2015/mar/05/doubt-over-climate-science-is-a-product-with-an-industry-behind-it" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Doubt over climate science is a product with an industry behind it"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190529163355/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/planet-oz/2015/mar/05/doubt-over-climate-science-is-a-product-with-an-industry-behind-it" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 29 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">6 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Doubt+over+climate+science+is+a+product+with+an+industry+behind+it&rft.date=2015-03-05&rft.aulast=Readfearn&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fplanet-oz%2F2015%2Fmar%2F05%2Fdoubt-over-climate-science-is-a-product-with-an-industry-behind-it&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-book_industry-116" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-book_industry_116-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFWashingtonCook2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Washington, Haydn; Cook, John (2011). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qbVcIc8w6w4C&q=climate+change+denial+industry&pg=PA108" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand</i></a>. Earthscan. p. 108. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84971-335-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84971-335-1"><bdi>978-1-84971-335-1</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110151048/https://books.google.com/books?id=qbVcIc8w6w4C&q=climate+change+denial+industry&pg=PA108" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">30 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+Denial%3A+Heads+in+the+Sand&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Earthscan&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84971-335-1&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Haydn&rft.au=Cook%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqbVcIc8w6w4C%26q%3Dclimate%2Bchange%2Bdenial%2Bindustry%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-117" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-117" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/world/europe/climate-change-accord-paris.html?_r=0" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Nations Approve Landmark Climate Accord in Paris"</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211105144857/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/world/europe/climate-change-accord-paris.html?_r=0" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>5 November 2021 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>, 12 December 2015.</span></li><li id="cite_note-118" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-118" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation magazine cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-pentagon-climate-change-how-climate-deniers-put-national-security-at-risk-20150212" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Pentagon & Climate Change: How Deniers Put National Security at Risk"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rolling Stone">Rolling Stone</a></i>. 2015. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180307230313/https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-pentagon-climate-change-how-climate-deniers-put-national-security-at-risk-20150212" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">25 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rolling+Stone&rft.atitle=The+Pentagon+%26+Climate+Change%3A+How+Deniers+Put+National+Security+at+Risk&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rollingstone.com%2Fpolitics%2Fnews%2Fthe-pentagon-climate-change-how-climate-deniers-put-national-security-at-risk-20150212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-119" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-119" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFPilkington2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Pilkington, Ed (14 November 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/14/facebook-microsoft-rightwing-lobby-network-spn" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Facebook and Microsoft help fund rightwing lobby network, report finds"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404200048/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/14/facebook-microsoft-rightwing-lobby-network-spn" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 November</span>2013</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Facebook+and+Microsoft+help+fund+rightwing+lobby+network%2C+report+finds&rft.date=2013-11-14&rft.aulast=Pilkington&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2013%2Fnov%2F14%2Ffacebook-microsoft-rightwing-lobby-network-spn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-120" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-120" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCallender2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Callender, Craig (29 September 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/fossil-fuel-money-is-warping-climate-research" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Fossil-Fuel Money Is Warping Climate Research: Universities Must Require Full Funding Disclosure"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chronicle_of_Higher_Education" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Chronicle of Higher Education">The Chronicle of Higher Education</a></i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chronicle+of+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=Fossil-Fuel+Money+Is+Warping+Climate+Research%3A+Universities+Must+Require+Full+Funding+Disclosure&rft.date=2022-09-29&rft.aulast=Callender&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chronicle.com%2Farticle%2Ffossil-fuel-money-is-warping-climate-research&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-121" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-121" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://clexit.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/clexit.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"After Brexit, Clexit"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Clexit</i>. 1 August 2016. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160804173707/http://clexit.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/clexit.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a><span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 4 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">5 September</span>2018</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clexit&rft.atitle=After+Brexit%2C+Clexit&rft.date=2016-08-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclexit.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F07%2Fclexit.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-122" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-122" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://clexit.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/clexit-members.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Clexit now comprises 190 members from 26 countries"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Clexit</i>. 2016. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160804173934/http://clexit.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/clexit-members.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 4 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">5 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clexit&rft.atitle=Clexit+now+comprises+190+members+from+26+countries&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclexit.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F07%2Fclexit-members.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-123" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-123" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFNuccitelli2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Nuccitelli, Dana (8 August 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2016/aug/08/rejection-of-experts-spreads-from-brexit-to-climate-change-with-clexit" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Rejection of experts spreads from Brexit to climate change with 'Clexit'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210813013944/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2016/aug/08/rejection-of-experts-spreads-from-brexit-to-climate-change-with-clexit" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">15 April</span>2018</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Rejection+of+experts+spreads+from+Brexit+to+climate+change+with+%27Clexit%27&rft.date=2016-08-08&rft.aulast=Nuccitelli&rft.aufirst=Dana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fclimate-consensus-97-per-cent%2F2016%2Faug%2F08%2Frejection-of-experts-spreads-from-brexit-to-climate-change-with-clexit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Porterfield_11/2/2021-124" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Porterfield_11/2/2021_124-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFPorterfield2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Porterfield, Carlie (2 November 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/carlieporterfield/2021/11/02/breitbart-leads-climate-change-misinformation-on-facebook-study-says/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Breitbart Leads Climate Change Misinformation On Facebook, Study Says"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Forbes">Forbes</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">3 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Breitbart+Leads+Climate+Change+Misinformation+On+Facebook%2C+Study+Says&rft.date=2021-11-02&rft.aulast=Porterfield&rft.aufirst=Carlie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fcarlieporterfield%2F2021%2F11%2F02%2Fbreitbart-leads-climate-change-misinformation-on-facebook-study-says%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Toxic_Ten_11/2/2021-125" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Toxic_Ten_11/2/2021_125-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.counterhate.com/toxicten" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Toxic Ten: How ten fringe publishers fuel 69% of digital climate change denial"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Countering_Digital_Hate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Center for Countering Digital Hate">Center for Countering Digital Hate</a>. 2 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">3 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Toxic+Ten%3A+How+ten+fringe+publishers+fuel+69%25+of+digital+climate+change+denial&rft.pub=Center+for+Countering+Digital+Hate&rft.date=2021-11-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.counterhate.com%2Ftoxicten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Graves_Beard_2019_p._176-126" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Graves_Beard_2019_p._176_126-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFGravesBeard2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Graves, H.; Beard, D.E. (2019). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kU-QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT176" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Rhetoric of Oil in the Twenty-First Century: Government, Corporate, and Activist Discourses</i></a>. Routledge Studies in Rhetoric and Communication. Taylor & Francis. p. 176. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-05212-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-05212-2"><bdi>978-1-351-05212-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">26 April</span> 2022</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">After the network failed, Levant launched his online platform, Rebel Media, where he has continued to champion right-wing causes: critiquing provincial NDP policies, denying climate change, condemning federal immigration policies, and advocating for the Alberta oil and gas industry.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rhetoric+of+Oil+in+the+Twenty-First+Century%3A+Government%2C+Corporate%2C+and+Activist+Discourses&rft.series=Routledge+Studies+in+Rhetoric+and+Communication&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-351-05212-2&rft.aulast=Graves&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Beard%2C+D.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkU-QDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Craig_10/31/2016-127" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Craig_10/31/2016_127-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFCraig2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Craig, Sean (31 October 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://financialpost.com/news/the-un-offers-the-rebel-press-accreditation-for-climate-conference-after-environment-ministers-intervention" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"UN offers The Rebel press accreditation for climate conference after environment minister's intervention"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Post" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Financial Post">Financial Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">13 November</span> 2020</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Levant suggested that the The[sic] Rebel — which publishes coverage of environment issues that often exhibits or promotes climate change skepticism</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Post&rft.atitle=UN+offers+The+Rebel+press+accreditation+for+climate+conference+after+environment+minister%27s+intervention&rft.date=2016-10-31&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffinancialpost.com%2Fnews%2Fthe-un-offers-the-rebel-press-accreditation-for-climate-conference-after-environment-ministers-intervention&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Rowell_6/24/2017-128" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Rowell_6/24/2017_128-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFRowell2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Rowell, Andy (24 June 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://priceofoil.org/2017/06/24/rebel-media-from-promoting-tar-sands-and-climate-denial-to-bigoted-lunatics/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Rebel Media: From Promoting Tar Sands and Climate Denial to 'Bigoted Lunatics'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>Oil Change International</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">23 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oil+Change+International&rft.atitle=Rebel+Media%3A+From+Promoting+Tar+Sands+and+Climate+Denial+to+%27Bigoted+Lunatics%27&rft.date=2017-06-24&rft.aulast=Rowell&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpriceofoil.org%2F2017%2F06%2F24%2Frebel-media-from-promoting-tar-sands-and-climate-denial-to-bigoted-lunatics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Kay_5/1/2017-129" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Kay_5/1/2017_129-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFKay2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kay, Jonathan (1 May 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://thewalrus.ca/how-climate-change-denial-set-the-stage-for-fake-news/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How Climate Change Denial Set the Stage for Fake News"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walrus" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Walrus">The Walrus</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">23 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Walrus&rft.atitle=How+Climate+Change+Denial+Set+the+Stage+for+Fake+News&rft.date=2017-05-01&rft.aulast=Kay&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthewalrus.ca%2Fhow-climate-change-denial-set-the-stage-for-fake-news%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-4thNCA-130" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-4thNCA_130-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/3/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I – Chapter 3: Detection and Attribution of Climate Change"</a>. <i>science2017.globalchange.gov</i>. U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP): 1–470. 2017. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190923190450/https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/3/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 23 September 2019.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=science2017.globalchange.gov&rft.atitle=Climate+Science+Special+Report%3A+Fourth+National+Climate+Assessment%2C+Volume+I+%E2%80%93+Chapter+3%3A+Detection+and+Attribution+of+Climate+Change&rft.pages=1-470&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience2017.globalchange.gov%2Fchapter%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> Adapted directly from Fig. 3.3.</span></li><li id="cite_note-trace-131" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-trace_131-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-trace_131-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "Claim 1: Anthropogenic CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> can't be changing climate, because CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> is only a trace gas in the atmosphere and the amount produced by humans is dwarfed by the amount from volcanoes and other natural sources. Water vapor is by far the most important greenhouse gas, so changes in CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> are irrelevant."</span></li><li id="cite_note-132" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-132" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: " According to the U.S. Geological Survey, anthropogenic CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> amounts to about 30 billion tons annually—more than 130 times as much as volcanoes produce."</span></li><li id="cite_note-133" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-133" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFArcher2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Archer, David (6 April 2005). <a class="external text" href="http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2005/04/water-vapour-feedback-or-forcing/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Water vapour: feedback or forcing?"</a>. <i>RealClimate</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200601181505/http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2005/04/water-vapour-feedback-or-forcing/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">5 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RealClimate&rft.atitle=Water+vapour%3A+feedback+or+forcing%3F&rft.date=2005-04-06&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.realclimate.org%2Findex.php%2Farchives%2F2005%2F04%2Fwater-vapour-feedback-or-forcing%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-134" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-134" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "from Arrhenius on, climatologists have incorporated water vapor into their models. In fact, water vapor is why rising CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span>has such a big effect on climate ... Nevertheless, within this dynamic, the CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> remains the main driver ... of the greenhouse effect."</span></li><li id="cite_note-135" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-135" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "Claim 3: Global warming stopped a decade ago; Earth has been cooling since then."</span></li><li id="cite_note-136" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-136" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "Claim 4: The sun or cosmic rays are much more likely to be the real causes of global warming. After all, Mars is warming up, too."</span></li><li id="cite_note-137" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-137" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "But in defiance of the naysayers who want to chalk the recent warming up to natural cycles, there is insufficient evidence that enough extra solar energy is reaching our planet to account for the observed rise in global temperatures."</span></li><li id="cite_note-138" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-138" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFWaldman2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Waldman, Scott (17 May 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/republican-lawmaker-rocks-tumbling-ocean-causing-sea-level-rise" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Republican lawmaker: Rocks tumbling into ocean causing sea level rise"</a>. Science. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180517165517/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/05/republican-lawmaker-rocks-tumbling-ocean-causing-sea-level-rise" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 17 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Republican+lawmaker%3A+Rocks+tumbling+into+ocean+causing+sea+level+rise&rft.date=2018-05-17&rft.aulast=Waldman&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Frepublican-lawmaker-rocks-tumbling-ocean-causing-sea-level-rise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-139" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-139" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "Claim 7: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_fix" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Technological fix">Technological fixes</a>, such as inventing energy sources that don't produce CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> or geoengineering the climate, would be more affordable, prudent ways to address climate change than reducing our carbon footprint."</span></li><li id="cite_note-CNN_20150227-140" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-CNN_20150227_140-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-CNN_20150227_140-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFBarrett2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Barrett, Ted (27 February 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2015/02/26/politics/james-inhofe-snowball-climate-change/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Inhofe brings snowball on Senate floor as evidence globe is not warming"</a>. CNN. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407052944/https://www.cnn.com/2015/02/26/politics/james-inhofe-snowball-climate-change/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 7 April 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Inhofe+brings+snowball+on+Senate+floor+as+evidence+globe+is+not+warming&rft.date=2015-02-27&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2015%2F02%2F26%2Fpolitics%2Fjames-inhofe-snowball-climate-change%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-141" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-141" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "Claim 5: Climatologists conspire to hide the truth about global warming by locking away their data. Their so-called 'consensus' on global warming is scientifically irrelevant because science isn't settled by popularity. ... Claim 6: Climatologists have a vested interest in raising the alarm because it brings them money and prestige."</span></li><li id="cite_note-plot-142" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-plot_142-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFWhite2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">White, Rob (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NgzIl7LvUVIC&pg=PA48" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Change from a Criminological Perspective</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 49. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3640-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3640-9"><bdi>978-1-4614-3640-9</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601191634/https://books.google.com/books?id=NgzIl7LvUVIC&pg=PA48" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">4 July</span> 2015</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">many Americans, including many American politicians and decision-makers, are increasingly viewing climate change as a 'left-wing plot'—part of the 'one-world socialist agenda' or a 'conspiracy to impose world government and a sweeping redistribution of wealth.' Just as Republican Senator James Inhofe of Oklahoma proclaimed on the Senate floor that '[g]lobal warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people', many Americans believe that climate change is 'a cynical hoax perpetrated by climate scientists ... greedy for grants.'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span></q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+from+a+Criminological+Perspective&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-3640-9&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNgzIl7LvUVIC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-143" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-143" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFUscinskiDouglasLewandowsky2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Uscinski, Joseph E.; Douglas, Karen; Lewandowsky, Stephan (September 2017). "Climate Change Conspiracy Theories". <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science</i>. <b>1</b>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190228620.013.328" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.328</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022862-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022862-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022862-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Climate+Science&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+Conspiracy+Theories&rft.volume=1&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190228620.013.328&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022862-0&rft.aulast=Uscinski&rft.aufirst=Joseph+E.&rft.au=Douglas%2C+Karen&rft.au=Lewandowsky%2C+Stephan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-144" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-144" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "If there were a massive conspiracy to defraud the world on climate (and to what end?), surely the thousands of e-mails and other files stolen from the University of East Anglia's Climatic Research Unit and distributed by hackers on November 20 would bear proof of it. So far, however, none has emerged. Most of the few statements that critics claim as evidence of malfeasance seem to have more innocent explanations that make sense in the context of scientists conversing privately and informally."</span></li><li id="cite_note-6committees-145" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-6committees_145-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eight major investigations on the leaked emails include: <a class="external text" href="http://www.deccanherald.com/content/61233/uk-climategate-inquiry-largely-clears.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">House of Commons Science and Technology Committee</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211104133523/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/61233/uk-climategate-inquiry-largely-clears.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 4 November 2021 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (UK); <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/science/earth/08climate.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Independent Climate Change Review</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211104123924/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/science/earth/08climate.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 4 November 2021 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (UK); International Science Assessment Panel ("Oxburgh panel") <cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFReed2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Reed, Sarah (14 April 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/oxburgh-report-clears-controversial-climate-research-unit" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Oxburgh Report Clears Controversial Climate Research Unit"</a>. <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(magazine)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Science (magazine)">Science</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404201525/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/04/oxburgh-report-clears-controversial-climate-research-unit" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Oxburgh+Report+Clears+Controversial+Climate+Research+Unit&rft.date=2010-04-14&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Foxburgh-report-clears-controversial-climate-research-unit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> (UK); <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100704031346/http://views.washingtonpost.com/climate-change/post-carbon/2010/07/by_juliet_eilperin_a_pennsylvania.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Pennsylvania State University</a> first panel <cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFKintisch2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Kintisch" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eli Kintisch">Kintisch, Eli</a> (3 February 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/climate-scientist-mann-partially-absolved-penn-state" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Scientist Mann Partially Absolved by Penn State"</a>. <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(magazine)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Science (magazine)">Science</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404200321/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/02/climate-scientist-mann-partially-absolved-penn-state" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Climate+Scientist+Mann+Partially+Absolved+by+Penn+State&rft.date=2010-02-03&rft.aulast=Kintisch&rft.aufirst=Eli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fclimate-scientist-mann-partially-absolved-penn-state&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> and second panel <cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFKintisch2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kintisch, Eli (1 July 2010). "Michael Mann Exonerated as Penn State Inquiry Finds 'No Substance' To Allegations". <i>Science</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Michael+Mann+Exonerated+as+Penn+State+Inquiry+Finds+%27No+Substance%27+To+Allegations&rft.date=2010-07-01&rft.aulast=Kintisch&rft.aufirst=Eli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> (US); <a class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-essex-10899538" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211031172545/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-essex-10899538" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 31 October 2021 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (US); <a class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2011/02/24/science-climategate-noaa.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Department of Commerce</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130727151022/http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2011/02/24/science-climategate-noaa.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>27 July 2013 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (US); <a class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-08-22/climate-change-scientist-cleared-in-u-s-data-altering-inquiry.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">National Science Foundation</a> (US)</span></li><li id="cite_note-146" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-146" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAndereggPrallHaroldSchneider2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Anderegg, William R L; Prall, James W.; Harold, Jacob; <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_H._Schneider" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stephen H. Schneider">Schneider, Stephen H.</a> (2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901439" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Expert credibility in climate change"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A</i>. <b>107</b> (27): 12107–12109. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..10712107A" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2010PNAS..10712107A</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1003187107" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.1003187107</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901439" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2901439</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20566872" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20566872</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">(i) 97–98% of the climate researchers most actively publishing in the field support the tenets of ACC (Anthropogenic Climate Change) outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and (ii) the relative climate expertise and scientific prominence of the researchers unconvinced of ACC are substantially below that of the convinced researchers.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Expert+credibility+in+climate+change&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=12107-12109&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2901439%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20566872&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1003187107&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..10712107A&rft.aulast=Anderegg&rft.aufirst=William+R+L&rft.au=Prall%2C+James+W.&rft.au=Harold%2C+Jacob&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Stephen+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2901439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-147" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-147" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFRennie2009" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Rennie 2009</a>: "Climatologists are frequently frustrated by accusations that they are hiding their data or the details of their models because, as Gavin Schmidt points out, much of the relevant information is in public databases or otherwise accessible—a fact that contrarians conveniently ignore when insisting that scientists stonewall their requests."</span></li><li id="cite_note-148" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-148" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLewandowskyOberauer2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lewandowsky, Stephan; Oberauer, Klaus (2013). "NASA Faked the Moon Landing—Therefore, (Climate) Science Is a Hoax". <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_Science_(journal)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Psychological Science (journal)">Psychological Science</a></i>. <b>24</b> (5): 622–633. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797612457686" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0956797612457686</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23531484" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">23531484</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23921773" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">23921773</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=NASA+Faked+the+Moon+Landing%E2%80%94Therefore%2C+%28Climate%29+Science+Is+a+Hoax&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=622-633&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23921773%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23531484&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0956797612457686&rft.aulast=Lewandowsky&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft.au=Oberauer%2C+Klaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-149" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-149" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGoldenberg2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Goldenberg, Suzanne (11 June 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jun/11/james-inhofe-republican-climate-denier-pope-francis" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Republicans' leading climate denier tells the pope to butt out of climate debate"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404200041/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jun/11/james-inhofe-republican-climate-denier-pope-francis" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">11 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Republicans%27+leading+climate+denier+tells+the+pope+to+butt+out+of+climate+debate&rft.date=2015-06-11&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2015%2Fjun%2F11%2Fjames-inhofe-republican-climate-denier-pope-francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-150" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-150" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/208431-gop-leader-climate-change-science-not-known" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Republican leader: Climate change science 'not known'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>The Hill</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180721184036/http://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/208431-gop-leader-climate-change-science-not-known" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">28 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hill&rft.atitle=Republican+leader%3A+Climate+change+science+%27not+known%27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthehill.com%2Fpolicy%2Fenergy-environment%2F208431-gop-leader-climate-change-science-not-known&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-151" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-151" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFZurcher2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Zurcher, Anthony (2 June 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-40128034" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Does Trump still think it's all a hoax?"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110014327/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-40128034" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Does+Trump+still+think+it%27s+all+a+hoax%3F&rft.date=2017-06-02&rft.aulast=Zurcher&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-us-canada-40128034&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-TweetRepMTG-152" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-TweetRepMTG_152-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFRep._Marjorie_Taylor_Greene_[@RepMTG]2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Rep. Marjorie Taylor Greene [@RepMTG] (15 April 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://twitter.com/RepMTG/status/1647251668373839878" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"We live on a spinning planet that rotates around a much bigger sun along with other planets and heavenly bodies rotating around the sun that all create gravitational pull on one another while our galaxy rotates and travels through the universe. Considering all of that, yes our climate will change, and it's totally normal! ... Don't fall for the scam, fossil fuels are natural and amazing"</a> (Tweet) – via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=We+live+on+a+spinning+planet+that+rotates+around+a+much+bigger+sun+along+with+other+planets+and+heavenly+bodies+rotating+around+the+sun+that+all+create+gravitational+pull+on+one+another+while+our+galaxy+rotates+and+travels+through+the+universe.+Considering+all+of+that%2C+yes+our+climate+will+change%2C+and+it%27s+totally+normal%21+...+Don%E2%80%99t+fall+for+the+scam%2C+fossil+fuels+are+natural+and+amazing.&rft.date=2023-04-15&rft.au=Rep.+Marjorie+Taylor+Greene+%5B%40RepMTG%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.com%2FRepMTG%2Fstatus%2F1647251668373839878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-MTG_tweet_20230415-153" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-MTG_tweet_20230415_153-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-MTG_tweet_20230415_153-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFGreene,_Marjorie_Taylor_[@RepMTG]2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Greene, Marjorie Taylor [@RepMTG] (15 April 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://twitter.com/RepMTG/status/1647251668373839878" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Rep. Marjorie Taylor Greene🇺🇸"</a> (Tweet). Hapeville, GA. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230418204120/https://twitter.com/RepMTG/status/1647251668373839878" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2023 – via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rep.+Marjorie+Taylor+Greene%F0%9F%87%BA%F0%9F%87%B8&rft.place=Hapeville%2C+GA&rft.date=2023-04-15&rft.au=Greene%2C+Marjorie+Taylor+%5B%40RepMTG%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.com%2FRepMTG%2Fstatus%2F1647251668373839878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> described in <cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFAl-Arshani2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Al-Arshani, Sarah (16 April 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/marjorie-taylor-greene-fossil-fuels-amazing-climate-change-scam-2023-4" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Marjorie Taylor Greene says climate change is a 'scam' and that fossil fuels are 'amazing'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>Business Insider</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230418011925/https://www.businessinsider.com/marjorie-taylor-greene-fossil-fuels-amazing-climate-change-scam-2023-4" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=Marjorie+Taylor+Greene+says+climate+change+is+a+%27scam%27+and+that+fossil+fuels+are+%27amazing%27&rft.date=2023-04-16&rft.aulast=Al-Arshani&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fmarjorie-taylor-greene-fossil-fuels-amazing-climate-change-scam-2023-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-EPA_GHGs-154" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-EPA_GHGs_154-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Overview of Greenhouse Gases"</a>. <i>EPA.gov</i>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2016. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230417145459/https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EPA.gov&rft.atitle=Overview+of+Greenhouse+Gases&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fghgemissions%2Foverview-greenhouse-gases&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> See pie chart for carbon dioxide and methane emissions totalling more than 90% of greenhouse gas emissions.</span></li><li id="cite_note-Rahmstorf_2004-155" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Rahmstorf_2004_155-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Rahmstorf_2004_155-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rahmstorf, S., 2004, <a class="external text" href="http://www.pik-potsdam.de/~stefan/Publications/Other/rahmstorf_climate_sceptics_2004.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">The climate sceptics: Weather Catastrophes and Climate Change—Is There Still Hope For Us?</a><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210910232238/http://www.pik-potsdam.de/~stefan/Publications/Other/rahmstorf_climate_sceptics_2004.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 10 September 2021 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Munich: PG Verlag) pp. 76–83 [note: numbering not shown in original]</span></li><li id="cite_note-auto-156" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-auto_156-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-auto_156-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-auto_156-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBjörnberg2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Björnberg, Karin Edvardsson; et al. (2017). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jclepro.2017.08.066" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate and environmental science denial: A review of the scientific literature published in 1990–2015"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Cleaner_Production" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Journal of Cleaner Production">Journal of Cleaner Production</a></i>. <b>167</b>: 229–241. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jclepro.2017.08.066" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.066</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cleaner+Production&rft.atitle=Climate+and+environmental+science+denial%3A+A+review+of+the+scientific+literature+published+in+1990%E2%80%932015&rft.volume=167&rft.pages=229-241&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jclepro.2017.08.066&rft.aulast=Bj%C3%B6rnberg&rft.aufirst=Karin+Edvardsson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jclepro.2017.08.066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-157" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-157" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "We focused on the marked differences in what climate sceptics are sceptical about ... (1) trend sceptics (who deny the global warming trend), (2) attribution sceptics (who accept the trend, but either question the anthropogenic contribution saying it is overstated, negligent or non-existent compared to other factors like natural variation, or say it is not known with sufficient certainty what the main causes are) and (3) impact sceptics (who accept human causation, but claim impacts may be benign or beneficial, or that the models are not robust enough) and/or question the need for strong regulatory policies or interventions. "</span></li><li id="cite_note-Dunlap_Jacques_2013_p._702-158" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Dunlap_Jacques_2013_p._702_158-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFDunlapJacques2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Dunlap & Jacques 2013</a>, p. 702: "These books reject evidence that global warming is occurring, that human actions are the predominant cause of global warming, and/or that global warming will have negative impacts on human and natural systems. These arguments have been labelled trend, attribution, and impact denial (Rahmstorf, 2004). ... We located 108 books espousing one or more of these versions of climate change denial published through 2010"</span></li><li id="cite_note-Mann2013p23-159" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Mann2013p23_159-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Mann2013p23_159-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFMichael_E._Mann2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_E._Mann" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Michael E. Mann">Michael E. Mann</a> (2013). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HK0CN6FVtfgC&pg=PA23" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars: Dispatches from the Front Lines</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 23. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52638-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52638-8"><bdi>978-0-231-52638-8</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601184152/https://books.google.com/books?id=HK0CN6FVtfgC&pg=PA23" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">12 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hockey+Stick+and+the+Climate+Wars%3A+Dispatches+from+the+Front+Lines&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-231-52638-8&rft.au=Michael+E.+Mann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHK0CN6FVtfgC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-denial_ind_guardian-160" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-denial_ind_guardian_160-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-denial_ind_guardian_160-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-denial_ind_guardian_160-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-denial_ind_guardian_160-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMonbiot2006" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Monbiot" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="George Monbiot">Monbiot, George</a> (19 September 2006). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/sep/19/ethicalliving.g2" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The denial industry"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. London. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070324072335/http://environment.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,,1875762,00.html?gusrc=rss&feed=1" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+denial+industry&rft.date=2006-09-19&rft.aulast=Monbiot&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2006%2Fsep%2F19%2Fethicalliving.g2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-goodman-161" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-goodman_161-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-goodman_161-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGoodman2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Goodman" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ellen Goodman">Goodman, Ellen</a> (9 February 2007). <a class="external text" href="http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2007/02/09/no_change_in_political_climate/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"No change in political climate"</a>. <i>The Boston Globe</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160314223109/http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2007/02/09/no_change_in_political_climate/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">30 August</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=No+change+in+political+climate&rft.date=2007-02-09&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fglobe%2Feditorial_opinion%2Foped%2Farticles%2F2007%2F02%2F09%2Fno_change_in_political_climate%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-semantics_guardian-162" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-semantics_guardian_162-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGeorge_Monbiot2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">George Monbiot (27 February 2009). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/georgemonbiot/2009/feb/27/climate-change-deniers-sceptics" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change: The semantics of denial"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601234736/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/georgemonbiot/2009/feb/27/climate-change-deniers-sceptics" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">27 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Climate+change%3A+The+semantics+of+denial&rft.date=2009-02-27&rft.au=George+Monbiot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fgeorgemonbiot%2F2009%2Ffeb%2F27%2Fclimate-change-deniers-sceptics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Christoff-163" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Christoff_163-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFChristoff2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Christoff, Peter (9 July 2007). <a class="external text" href="http://www.theage.com.au/news/opinion/climate-change-is-another-grim-tale-to-be-treated-with-respect/2007/07/08/1183833338608.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change is another grim tale to be treated with respect – Opinion"</a>. <i>Theage.com.au</i>. Melbourne. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170701170528/http://www.theage.com.au/news/opinion/climate-change-is-another-grim-tale-to-be-treated-with-respect/2007/07/08/1183833338608.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">19 March</span>2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theage.com.au&rft.atitle=Climate+change+is+another+grim+tale+to+be+treated+with+respect+%E2%80%93+Opinion&rft.date=2007-07-09&rft.aulast=Christoff&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theage.com.au%2Fnews%2Fopinion%2Fclimate-change-is-another-grim-tale-to-be-treated-with-respect%2F2007%2F07%2F08%2F1183833338608.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-ConnellyHarm-164" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-ConnellyHarm_164-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFConnelly2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Connelly, Joel (10 July 2007). <a class="external text" href="http://www.seattlepi.com/connelly/323181_joel11.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Deniers of global warming harm us"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Post-Intelligencer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Seattle Post-Intelligencer">Seattle Post-Intelligencer</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101205035148/http://www.seattlepi.com/connelly/323181_joel11.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">25 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seattle+Post-Intelligencer&rft.atitle=Deniers+of+global+warming+harm+us&rft.date=2007-07-10&rft.aulast=Connelly&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattlepi.com%2Fconnelly%2F323181_joel11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-NewsweekTimeline-165" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NewsweekTimeline_165-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">"Timeline, Climate Change and its Naysayers". <i>Newsweek</i>. 13 August 2007.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Timeline%2C+Climate+Change+and+its+Naysayers&rft.date=2007-08-13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Liu-166" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Liu_166-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLiu2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Liu, D. W. C. (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3366896" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Science Denial and the Science Classroom"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBE:_Life_Sciences_Education" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CBE: Life Sciences Education">CBE: Life Sciences Education</a></i>. <b>11</b> (2): 129–134. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1187%2Fcbe.12-03-0029" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1187/cbe.12-03-0029</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3366896" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3366896</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22665586" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">22665586</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBE%3A+Life+Sciences+Education&rft.atitle=Science+Denial+and+the+Science+Classroom&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=129-134&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3366896%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22665586&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1187%2Fcbe.12-03-0029&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=D.+W.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3366896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Mark_Hoofnagle_Graun09-167" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Mark_Hoofnagle_Graun09_167-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Mark_Hoofnagle_Graun09_167-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFHoofnagle2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hoofnagle, Mark (11 March 2009). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2009/mar/10/climate-change-denier" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change deniers: failsafe tips on how to spot them"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814201917/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2009/mar/10/climate-change-denier" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">30 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Climate+change+deniers%3A+failsafe+tips+on+how+to+spot+them&rft.date=2009-03-11&rft.aulast=Hoofnagle&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fblog%2F2009%2Fmar%2F10%2Fclimate-change-denier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-168" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-168" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFBalakrishnan2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Balakrishnan, Anita (13 October 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2016/10/13/denial-of-climate-change-ai-puts-american-economy-on-path-to-ruin-obama-says.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Denial of climate change, AI puts American economy on 'path to ruin,' Obama says"</a>. CNBC. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011833/https://www.cnbc.com/2016/10/13/denial-of-climate-change-ai-puts-american-economy-on-path-to-ruin-obama-says.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">8 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Denial+of+climate+change%2C+AI+puts+American+economy+on+%27path+to+ruin%2C%27+Obama+says&rft.pub=CNBC&rft.date=2016-10-13&rft.aulast=Balakrishnan&rft.aufirst=Anita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2016%2F10%2F13%2Fdenial-of-climate-change-ai-puts-american-economy-on-path-to-ruin-obama-says.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-169" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-169" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMcKibben2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_McKibben" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bill McKibben">McKibben, Bill</a> (12 May 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/13/opinion/obamas-catastrophic-climate-change-denial.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Obama's Catastrophic Climate-Change Denial"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210711235428/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/13/opinion/obamas-catastrophic-climate-change-denial.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">15 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Obama%27s+Catastrophic+Climate-Change+Denial&rft.date=2015-05-12&rft.aulast=McKibben&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F05%2F13%2Fopinion%2Fobamas-catastrophic-climate-change-denial.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-170" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-170" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFGifford_R.2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Gifford R. (2011). "The dragons of inaction: psychological barriers that limit climate change mitigation and adaptation". <i>Am Psychol</i>. <b>66</b>(4): 290–302. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0023566" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1037/a0023566</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21553954" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">21553954</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8356816" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">8356816</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am+Psychol&rft.atitle=The+dragons+of+inaction%3A+psychological+barriers+that+limit+climate+change+mitigation+and+adaptation&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=290-302&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8356816%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21553954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0023566&rft.au=Gifford+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-171" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-171" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLejano2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lejano, Raul P. (16 September 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FBAMS-D-16-0327.1" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Ideology and the Narrative of Climate Skepticism"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</i>. <b>100</b> (12): ES415–ES421. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019BAMS..100S.415L" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2019BAMS..100S.415L</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FBAMS-D-16-0327.1" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0327.1</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0007" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0003-0007</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Meteorological+Society&rft.atitle=Ideology+and+the+Narrative+of+Climate+Skepticism&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=ES415-ES421&rft.date=2019-09-16&rft.issn=0003-0007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FBAMS-D-16-0327.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019BAMS..100S.415L&rft.aulast=Lejano&rft.aufirst=Raul+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252FBAMS-D-16-0327.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Grist_20111107-172" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Grist_20111107_172-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFZimmerman2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Zimmerman, Jess (7 November 2011). <a class="external text" href="https://grist.org/article/2011-11-07-handy-image-shows-how-climate-deniers-manipulate-data/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Handy image shows how climate deniers manipulate data"</a>. <i>Grist</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191001173511/https://grist.org/article/2011-11-07-handy-image-shows-how-climate-deniers-manipulate-data/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2019.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Grist&rft.atitle=Handy+image+shows+how+climate+deniers+manipulate+data&rft.date=2011-11-07&rft.aulast=Zimmerman&rft.aufirst=Jess&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgrist.org%2Farticle%2F2011-11-07-handy-image-shows-how-climate-deniers-manipulate-data%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-AtomicSci+2014-173" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-AtomicSci+2014_173-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFStover2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Stover, Dawn (23 September 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://thebulletin.org/2014/09/the-global-warming-hiatus/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The global warming 'hiatus'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200711032006/https://thebulletin.org/2014/09/the-global-warming-hiatus/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2020.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=The+global+warming+%27hiatus%27&rft.date=2014-09-23&rft.aulast=Stover&rft.aufirst=Dawn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthebulletin.org%2F2014%2F09%2Fthe-global-warming-hiatus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-NCSE-174" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSE_174-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://ncse.com/climate-change-101/ncse-tackles-climate-change-denial" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"NCSE Tackles Climate Change Denial"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Science_Education" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Center for Science Education">National Center for Science Education</a>. 13 January 2012. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160424171330/http://ncse.com/climate-change-101/ncse-tackles-climate-change-denial" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">5 July</span> 2015</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Science education is under attack ... by climate change deniers, who ignore a mountain of evidence gathered over the last fifty years that the planet is warming and that humans are largely responsible. These deniers attempt to sabotage science education with fringe ideas, pseudoscience, and outright lies.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NCSE+Tackles+Climate+Change+Denial&rft.pub=National+Center+for+Science+Education&rft.date=2012-01-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fncse.com%2Fclimate-change-101%2Fncse-tackles-climate-change-denial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Lahsen-175" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Lahsen_175-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLahsen2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lahsen, Myanna (Winter 2005). "Technocracy, Democracy, and the U.S. Climate Politics: The Need for Demarcations". <i>Science, Technology, & Human Values</i>. <b>30</b>: 137–169. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0162243904270710" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0162243904270710</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145482135" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">145482135</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Numerous high-ranked officers in the Clinton-Gore administration sought to dismiss all critics of the climate paradigm as "pseudoscientists"<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span></q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science%2C+Technology%2C+%26+Human+Values&rft.atitle=Technocracy%2C+Democracy%2C+and+the+U.S.+Climate+Politics%3A+The+Need+for+Demarcations&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=137-169&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0162243904270710&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145482135%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lahsen&rft.aufirst=Myanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-BrownM-176" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-BrownM_176-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, Michael. <a class="external text" href="http://phys.org/news/2013-09-adversaries-zombies-nipcc-climate-pseudoscience.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Adversaries, zombies and NIPCC climate pseudoscience</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190202203411/http://phys.org/news/2013-09-adversaries-zombies-nipcc-climate-pseudoscience.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 2 February 2019 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phys.org" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Phys.org">Phys.org</a></i>, 26 September 2013</span></li><li id="cite_note-177" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-177" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBrown1996" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Brown 1996</a>, p. 28: "As the scientific fringe has become institutionalized, professionalized, and lionized ... One finds that a fundamental difference between the traditional scientific establishment and the emerging 'skeptic' establishment relates to their ultimate scientific goals. The former has traditionally emphasized the generation of new knowledge as a measure of productivity. That is, the collection of original data, construction of new mathematical techniques, and generation and validation of testable hypotheses have been the hallmarks of the traditional scientific community ... On the other hand, the emerging culture profiled in these hearings emphasizes the generation of new perspectives. Productivity is measured on the ability to alter public opinion—through opinion pieces aimed not at their fellow scientists but at policymakers, the media, and the general public—and funding flows accordingly."</span></li><li id="cite_note-Morrison-178" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Morrison_178-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morrison, David. <a class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/si/show/the_parameters_of_pseudoscience/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">The Parameters of Pseudoscience</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160721165735/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/the_parameters_of_pseudoscience/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>21 July 2016 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>, Volume 37.2, March/April 2013. Book review of <i>The Pseudoscience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern Fringe</i>, by Michael D. Gordin.</span></li><li id="cite_note-179" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-179" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFNuccitelli2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Nuccitelli, Dana (8 May 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2017/may/08/study-to-beat-science-denial-inoculate-against-misinformers-tricks" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Study: to beat science denial, inoculate against misinformers' tricks"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0261-3077</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814094756/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2017/may/08/study-to-beat-science-denial-inoculate-against-misinformers-tricks" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Study%3A+to+beat+science+denial%2C+inoculate+against+misinformers%27+tricks&rft.date=2017-05-08&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Nuccitelli&rft.aufirst=Dana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fclimate-consensus-97-per-cent%2F2017%2Fmay%2F08%2Fstudy-to-beat-science-denial-inoculate-against-misinformers-tricks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-180" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-180" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1" id="CITEREFCook2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cook, John (26 October 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/climatescience/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228620-e-314" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Countering Climate Science Denial and Communicating Scientific Consensus"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Climate science</i>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science</i>. Oxford University Press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190228620.013.314" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.314</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022862-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022862-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022862-0</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210906192636/https://oxfordre.com/climatescience/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228620-e-314" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedias%3A+Climate+science&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Climate+Science&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016-10-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190228620.013.314&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022862-0&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclimatescience%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190228620.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780190228620-e-314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-181" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-181" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFKwon" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kwon, Diana. <a class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-to-debate-a-science-denier/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How to Debate a Science Denier"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211031220708/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-to-debate-a-science-denier/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 31 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=How+to+Debate+a+Science+Denier&rft.aulast=Kwon&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fhow-to-debate-a-science-denier%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-182" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-182" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFLee2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lee, McIntyre (8 August 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2019/08/08/how-defend-science-climate-change-deniers-and-others-who-attack-it-opinion" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How to defend science to climate-change deniers and others who attack it (opinion)"</a>. <i>Inside Higher Ed</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211106103052/https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2019/08/08/how-defend-science-climate-change-deniers-and-others-who-attack-it-opinion" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Inside+Higher+Ed&rft.atitle=How+to+defend+science+to+climate-change+deniers+and+others+who+attack+it+%28opinion%29&rft.date=2019-08-08&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=McIntyre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insidehighered.com%2Fviews%2F2019%2F08%2F08%2Fhow-defend-science-climate-change-deniers-and-others-who-attack-it-opinion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-183" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-183" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFKendi2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kendi, Ibram X. (1 January 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/01/what-deniers-climate-change-and-racism-share/579190/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"What the Believers Are Denying"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211101230127/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/01/what-deniers-climate-change-and-racism-share/579190/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=What+the+Believers+Are+Denying&rft.date=2019-01-01&rft.aulast=Kendi&rft.aufirst=Ibram+X.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fideas%2Farchive%2F2019%2F01%2Fwhat-deniers-climate-change-and-racism-share%2F579190%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-184" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-184" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFRenner2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Renner, Ben (18 January 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.studyfinds.org/study-reveals-four-pathways-to-changing-the-minds-of-climate-deniers/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Study Reveals Four 'Pathways To Changing The Minds Of Climate Deniers'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>Study Finds</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307030904/https://www.studyfinds.org/study-reveals-four-pathways-to-changing-the-minds-of-climate-deniers/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Study+Finds&rft.atitle=Study+Reveals+Four+%27Pathways+To+Changing+The+Minds+Of+Climate+Deniers%27&rft.date=2020-01-18&rft.aulast=Renner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.studyfinds.org%2Fstudy-reveals-four-pathways-to-changing-the-minds-of-climate-deniers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-NPR_20230104-185" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NPR_20230104_185-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NPR_20230104_185-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFHersher2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hersher, Rebecca (4 January 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2023/01/04/1139782291/time-perception-climate-change-risk" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How our perception of time shapes our approach to climate change"</a>. NPR. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230109180504/https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2023/01/04/1139782291/time-perception-climate-change-risk" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 9 January 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+our+perception+of+time+shapes+our+approach+to+climate+change&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2023-01-04&rft.aulast=Hersher&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fhealth-shots%2F2023%2F01%2F04%2F1139782291%2Ftime-perception-climate-change-risk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-186" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-186" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://health.wusf.usf.edu/post/florida-s-gop-has-change-heart-about-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Florida's GOP Has A Change Of Heart About Climate Change"</a>. <i>Health News Florida, WUSF</i>. 21 October 2019. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200808174857/https://health.wusf.usf.edu/post/florida-s-gop-has-change-heart-about-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Health+News+Florida%2C+WUSF&rft.atitle=Florida%27s+GOP+Has+A+Change+Of+Heart+About+Climate+Change&rft.date=2019-10-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhealth.wusf.usf.edu%2Fpost%2Fflorida-s-gop-has-change-heart-about-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-187" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-187" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFGreen2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Green, Emily (13 October 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/there-is-always-another-part/201710/the-existential-dread-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Existential Dread of Climate Change"</a>. <i>Psychology Today</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110170220/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/there-is-always-another-part/201710/the-existential-dread-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Psychology+Today&rft.atitle=The+Existential+Dread+of+Climate+Change&rft.date=2017-10-13&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologytoday.com%2Fblog%2Fthere-is-always-another-part%2F201710%2Fthe-existential-dread-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-188" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-188" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFSwim" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Swim, Janet. <a class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/science/about/publications/climate-change.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Psychology and Global Climate Change: Addressing a Multi-faceted Phenomenon and Set of Challenges. A Report by the American Psychological Association's Task Force on the Interface Between Psychology and Global Climate Change"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a></i>. p. 9. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818042248/https://www.apa.org/science/about/publications/climate-change.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 18 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Psychological+Association&rft.atitle=Psychology+and+Global+Climate+Change%3A+Addressing+a+Multi-faceted+Phenomenon+and+Set+of+Challenges.+A+Report+by+the+American+Psychological+Association%27s+Task+Force+on+the+Interface+Between+Psychology+and+Global+Climate+Change&rft.pages=9&rft.aulast=Swim&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fscience%2Fabout%2Fpublications%2Fclimate-change.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-PLOSClimate_20230608-191" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-PLOSClimate_20230608_191-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-PLOSClimate_20230608_191-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-PLOSClimate_20230608_191-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCislakWójcikBorkowskaMilfont2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cislak, Aleksandra; Wójcik, Adrian D.; Borkowska, Julia; Milfont, Taciano (8 June 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000146" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Secure and defensive forms of national identity and public support for climate policies"</a>. <i>PLOS Climate</i>. <b>2</b> (6): e0000146. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pclm.0000146" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1371/journal.pclm.0000146</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Climate&rft.atitle=Secure+and+defensive+forms+of+national+identity+and+public+support+for+climate+policies&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e0000146&rft.date=2023-06-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pclm.0000146&rft.aulast=Cislak&rft.aufirst=Aleksandra&rft.au=W%C3%B3jcik%2C+Adrian+D.&rft.au=Borkowska%2C+Julia&rft.au=Milfont%2C+Taciano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.plos.org%2Fclimate%2Farticle%3Fid%3D10.1371%2Fjournal.pclm.0000146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-PNAS_20230321-192" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-PNAS_20230321_192-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBergquistThielGoldbergvan_der_Linden2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bergquist, Magnus; Thiel, Maximilian; Goldberg, Matthew H.; van der Linden, Sander (21 March 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10068847" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Field interventions for climate change mitigation behaviors: A second-order meta-analysis"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>120</b> (13): e2214851120. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023PNAS..12014851B" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2023PNAS..12014851B</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2214851120" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.2214851120</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10068847" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10068847</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36943888" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">36943888</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Field+interventions+for+climate+change+mitigation+behaviors%3A+A+second-order+meta-analysis&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=e2214851120&rft.date=2023-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10068847%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36943888&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2214851120&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023PNAS..12014851B&rft.aulast=Bergquist&rft.aufirst=Magnus&rft.au=Thiel%2C+Maximilian&rft.au=Goldberg%2C+Matthew+H.&rft.au=van+der+Linden%2C+Sander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10068847&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> (Table 1)<br />— Explained by <cite class="citation magazine cs1" id="CITEREFThompson2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Thompson, Andrea (19 April 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-makes-people-act-on-climate-change-according-to-behavioral-science/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"What Makes People Act on Climate Change, according to Behavioral Science"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230421034858/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-makes-people-act-on-climate-change-according-to-behavioral-science/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=What+Makes+People+Act+on+Climate+Change%2C+according+to+Behavioral+Science&rft.date=2023-04-19&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-makes-people-act-on-climate-change-according-to-behavioral-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-ClimateComms_-193" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-ClimateComms_193-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Data from <cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFAllewMarlonGoldbergMaibach2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Allew, Matthew; Marlon, Jennifer; Goldberg, Matthew; Maibach, Edward; et al. (27 September 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/publications/experience-with-global-warming-is-changing-peoples-minds-about-it/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Experience with global warming is changing people's minds about it"</a>. Yale Program on Climate Change Communication. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230531182758/https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/publications/experience-with-global-warming-is-changing-peoples-minds-about-it/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Experience+with+global+warming+is+changing+people%27s+minds+about+it&rft.pub=Yale+Program+on+Climate+Change+Communication&rft.date=2022-09-27&rft.aulast=Allew&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.au=Marlon%2C+Jennifer&rft.au=Goldberg%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Maibach%2C+Edward&rft.au=Rosenthal%2C+Seth&rft.au=Aiken%2C+Emily&rft.au=Leiserowitz%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclimatecommunication.yale.edu%2Fpublications%2Fexperience-with-global-warming-is-changing-peoples-minds-about-it%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> ● Full technical article (pay wall): <cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAllewMarlonGoldbergMaibach2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Allew, Matthew; Marlon, Jennifer; Goldberg, Matthew; Maibach, Edward; et al. (4 August 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1007/s10584-022-03397-w" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Changing minds about global warming: vicarious experience predicts self‑reported opinion change in the USA"</a>. <i>Climatic Change</i>. <b>173</b> (19). <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-022-03397-w" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10584-022-03397-w</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251323601" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">251323601</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climatic+Change&rft.atitle=Changing+minds+about+global+warming%3A+vicarious+experience+predicts+self%E2%80%91reported+opinion+change+in+the+USA&rft.volume=173&rft.issue=19&rft.date=2022-08-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-022-03397-w&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251323601%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Allew&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.au=Marlon%2C+Jennifer&rft.au=Goldberg%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Maibach%2C+Edward&rft.au=Rosenthal%2C+Seth&rft.au=Aiken%2C+Emily&rft.au=Leiserowitz%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fepdf%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-022-03397-w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> (Fig. 2 on p. 12) (<a class="external text" href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1GL3GXIKsE30aklRsDmYm6OX5ul_VME2k/view" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">preprint</a>)</span></li><li id="cite_note-Irish_Times-194" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Irish_Times_194-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Irish_Times_194-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFSharry" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sharry, John. <a class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/health-family/parenting/how-to-turn-climate-change-denial-into-acceptance-and-action-1.4058069" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How to turn climate-change denial into acceptance and action"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Irish Times">The Irish Times</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210323073048/https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/health-family/parenting/how-to-turn-climate-change-denial-into-acceptance-and-action-1.4058069" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=How+to+turn+climate-change+denial+into+acceptance+and+action&rft.aulast=Sharry&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Flife-and-style%2Fhealth-family%2Fparenting%2Fhow-to-turn-climate-change-denial-into-acceptance-and-action-1.4058069&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-phys.org-195" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-phys.org_195-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-phys.org_195-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFLewandowsky2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Lewandowsky" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stephan Lewandowsky">Lewandowsky, Stephan</a> (17 April 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2014-04-conspiracy-theories-climate-denial-cognitive.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"From conspiracy theories to climate change denial, a cognitive psychologist explains"</a>. <i>phys.org</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011538/https://phys.org/news/2014-04-conspiracy-theories-climate-denial-cognitive.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=phys.org&rft.atitle=From+conspiracy+theories+to+climate+change+denial%2C+a+cognitive+psychologist+explains&rft.date=2014-04-17&rft.aulast=Lewandowsky&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2014-04-conspiracy-theories-climate-denial-cognitive.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-196" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-196" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWong-ParodiFeygina2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wong-Parodi, Gabrielle; Feygina, Irina (8 January 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cosust.2019.11.008" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Understanding and countering the motivated roots of climate change denial"</a>. <i>Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability</i>. <b>42</b>: 60–64. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020COES...42...60W" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2020COES...42...60W</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cosust.2019.11.008" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.cosust.2019.11.008</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1877-3435" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1877-3435</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Environmental+Sustainability&rft.atitle=Understanding+and+countering+the+motivated+roots+of+climate+change+denial&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=60-64&rft.date=2020-01-08&rft.issn=1877-3435&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cosust.2019.11.008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020COES...42...60W&rft.aulast=Wong-Parodi&rft.aufirst=Gabrielle&rft.au=Feygina%2C+Irina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cosust.2019.11.008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-197" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-197" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFO'Connor2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">O'Connor, Mary Catherine (26 April 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.outsideonline.com/2176971/how-talk-climate-skeptic-or-denier-your-life" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How to Reason with the Climate Change Denier in Your Life"</a>. <i>Outside Online</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601221639/https://www.outsideonline.com/2176971/how-talk-climate-skeptic-or-denier-your-life" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span>2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Outside+Online&rft.atitle=How+to+Reason+with+the+Climate+Change+Denier+in+Your+Life&rft.date=2017-04-26&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Mary+Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.outsideonline.com%2F2176971%2Fhow-talk-climate-skeptic-or-denier-your-life&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-198" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-198" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFNaugesWheeler" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Nauges, Céline; Wheeler, Sarah Ann. <a class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/farmers-climate-denial-begins-to-wane-as-reality-bites-103906" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Farmers' climate denial begins to wane as reality bites"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011221/https://theconversation.com/farmers-climate-denial-begins-to-wane-as-reality-bites-103906" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span>2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Farmers%27+climate+denial+begins+to+wane+as+reality+bites&rft.aulast=Nauges&rft.aufirst=C%C3%A9line&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+Sarah+Ann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Ffarmers-climate-denial-begins-to-wane-as-reality-bites-103906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-199" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-199" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/2018-1-january-february/feature/talking-about-climate-change-trump-country" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Talking About Climate Change in Trump Country"</a>. <i>Sierra Club</i>. 7 December 2017. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601223234/https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/2018-1-january-february/feature/talking-about-climate-change-trump-country" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sierra+Club&rft.atitle=Talking+About+Climate+Change+in+Trump+Country&rft.date=2017-12-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sierraclub.org%2Fsierra%2F2018-1-january-february%2Ffeature%2Ftalking-about-climate-change-trump-country&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-200" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-200" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFBoot2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Boot, Max (26 November 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/i-was-wrong-on-climate-change-why-cant-other-conservatives-admit-it-too/2018/11/26/11d2b778-f1a1-11e8-bc79-68604ed88993_story.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"I was wrong on climate change. Why can't other conservatives admit it, too?"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210529211426/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/i-was-wrong-on-climate-change-why-cant-other-conservatives-admit-it-too/2018/11/26/11d2b778-f1a1-11e8-bc79-68604ed88993_story.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=I+was+wrong+on+climate+change.+Why+can%27t+other+conservatives+admit+it%2C+too%3F&rft.date=2018-11-26&rft.aulast=Boot&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fopinions%2Fglobal-opinions%2Fi-was-wrong-on-climate-change-why-cant-other-conservatives-admit-it-too%2F2018%2F11%2F26%2F11d2b778-f1a1-11e8-bc79-68604ed88993_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-201" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-201" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/2017/0523/Why-some-Republicans-are-warming-to-climate-action" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Why some Republicans are warming to climate action"</a>. <i>Christian Science Monitor</i>. 23 May 2017. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0882-7729" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0882-7729</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011718/https://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/2017/0523/Why-some-Republicans-are-warming-to-climate-action" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=Why+some+Republicans+are+warming+to+climate+action&rft.date=2017-05-23&rft.issn=0882-7729&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FEnvironment%2F2017%2F0523%2FWhy-some-Republicans-are-warming-to-climate-action&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-202" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-202" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFLerner2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lerner, Sharon (28 April 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://theintercept.com/2017/04/28/how-a-professional-climate-change-denier-discovered-the-lies-and-decided-to-fight-for-science/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How a Professional Climate Change Denier Discovered the Lies and Decided to Fight for Science"</a>. <i>The Intercept</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200723042233/https://theintercept.com/2017/04/28/how-a-professional-climate-change-denier-discovered-the-lies-and-decided-to-fight-for-science/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Intercept&rft.atitle=How+a+Professional+Climate+Change+Denier+Discovered+the+Lies+and+Decided+to+Fight+for+Science&rft.date=2017-04-28&rft.aulast=Lerner&rft.aufirst=Sharon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheintercept.com%2F2017%2F04%2F28%2Fhow-a-professional-climate-change-denier-discovered-the-lies-and-decided-to-fight-for-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-203" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-203" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.newhope.com/business-resources/former-climate-denier-turned-realist-rallies-businesses-take-action" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Former climate denier turned realist rallies businesses to take action"</a>. <i>New Hope Network</i>. 14 November 2018. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601201356/https://www.newhope.com/business-resources/former-climate-denier-turned-realist-rallies-businesses-take-action" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Hope+Network&rft.atitle=Former+climate+denier+turned+realist+rallies+businesses+to+take+action&rft.date=2018-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newhope.com%2Fbusiness-resources%2Fformer-climate-denier-turned-realist-rallies-businesses-take-action&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-204" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-204" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFAhmed2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Ahmed, Amel (16 April 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.kqed.org/science/1922675/a-growing-faction-of-conservatives-are-challenging-gop-stance-on-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Ex-'Professional Climate Denier' Aims to Convince Conservatives Threat is Real"</a>. <i>KQED</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210323075640/https://www.kqed.org/science/1922675/a-growing-faction-of-conservatives-are-challenging-gop-stance-on-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=KQED&rft.atitle=Ex-%27Professional+Climate+Denier%27+Aims+to+Convince+Conservatives+Threat+is+Real&rft.date=2018-04-16&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Amel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kqed.org%2Fscience%2F1922675%2Fa-growing-faction-of-conservatives-are-challenging-gop-stance-on-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-The_Week-205" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-The_Week_205-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-The_Week_205-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-The_Week_205-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://theweek.com/articles/491378/6-global-warming-skeptics-who-changed-minds" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"6 global warming skeptics who changed their minds"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Week" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Week">The Week</a></i>. 1 September 2010. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210721201845/https://theweek.com/articles/491378/6-global-warming-skeptics-who-changed-minds" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Week&rft.atitle=6+global+warming+skeptics+who+changed+their+minds&rft.date=2010-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheweek.com%2Farticles%2F491378%2F6-global-warming-skeptics-who-changed-minds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-206" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-206" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFBanerjee2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Banerjee, Neela (1 August 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.news.com.au/world/breaking-news/climate-change-denier-changes-mind/news-story/e0433a661400feb82345e5d5108cc2ce" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate-change denier changes his mind"</a>. <i>NewsComAu</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210824124014/https://www.news.com.au/world/breaking-news/climate-change-denier-changes-mind/news-story/e0433a661400feb82345e5d5108cc2ce" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 24 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NewsComAu&rft.atitle=Climate-change+denier+changes+his+mind&rft.date=2012-08-01&rft.aulast=Banerjee&rft.aufirst=Neela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.news.com.au%2Fworld%2Fbreaking-news%2Fclimate-change-denier-changes-mind%2Fnews-story%2Fe0433a661400feb82345e5d5108cc2ce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-207" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-207" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGoldenberg2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Goldenberg, Suzanne (20 December 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/dec/20/conservative-groups-1bn-against-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Conservative groups spend up to $1bn a year to fight action on climate change"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0261-3077</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211026160911/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/dec/20/conservative-groups-1bn-against-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Conservative+groups+spend+up+to+%241bn+a+year+to+fight+action+on+climate+change&rft.date=2013-12-20&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2013%2Fdec%2F20%2Fconservative-groups-1bn-against-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-208" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-208" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBrulle2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Brulle, Robert (2014). "Institutionalizing delay: foundation funding and the creation of U.S. climate change counter-movement organizations". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Change_(journal)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climatic Change (journal)">Climatic Change</a></i>. <b>122</b> (4): 681–694. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ClCh..122..681B" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2014ClCh..122..681B</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-013-1018-7" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10584-013-1018-7</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27538787" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">27538787</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climatic+Change&rft.atitle=Institutionalizing+delay%3A+foundation+funding+and+the+creation+of+U.S.+climate+change+counter-movement+organizations&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=681-694&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27538787%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-013-1018-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014ClCh..122..681B&rft.aulast=Brulle&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-209" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-209" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGoldenberg2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Goldenberg, Suzanne (14 February 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/feb/14/funding-climate-change-denial-thinktanks-network" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Secret funding helped build vast network of climate denial thinktanks"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0261-3077</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190525121334/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/feb/14/funding-climate-change-denial-thinktanks-network" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Secret+funding+helped+build+vast+network+of+climate+denial+thinktanks&rft.date=2013-02-14&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2013%2Ffeb%2F14%2Ffunding-climate-change-denial-thinktanks-network&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-210" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-210" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSchultz2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Schultz, Colin (23 December 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/meet-the-money-behind-the-climate-denial-movement-180948204/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Meet the Money Behind The Climate Denial Movement"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210917022059/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/meet-the-money-behind-the-climate-denial-movement-180948204/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 17 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=Meet+the+Money+Behind+The+Climate+Denial+Movement&rft.date=2013-12-23&rft.aulast=Schultz&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2Fmeet-the-money-behind-the-climate-denial-movement-180948204%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-211" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-211" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.opensecrets.org/industries/totals.php?ind=E1210" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Coal Mining: Long-Term Contribution Trends"</a>. <i>OpenSecrets</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818120523/https://www.opensecrets.org/industries/totals.php?ind=E1210" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OpenSecrets&rft.atitle=Coal+Mining%3A+Long-Term+Contribution+Trends&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.opensecrets.org%2Findustries%2Ftotals.php%3Find%3DE1210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-212" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-212" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.opensecrets.org/industries/totals.php?ind=E01++" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Oil & Gas: Long-Term Contribution Trends"</a>. <i>OpenSecrets</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211101195910/https://www.opensecrets.org/industries/totals.php?ind=E01++" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OpenSecrets&rft.atitle=Oil+%26+Gas%3A+Long-Term+Contribution+Trends&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.opensecrets.org%2Findustries%2Ftotals.php%3Find%3DE01%2B%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-213" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-213" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFKrugman2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Krugman, Paul (12 December 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/12/opinion/climate-change-republicans.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Opinion | The Party That Ruined the Planet"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0362-4331</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200120234537/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/12/opinion/climate-change-republicans.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Opinion+%7C+The+Party+That+Ruined+the+Planet&rft.date=2019-12-12&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Krugman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F12%2F12%2Fopinion%2Fclimate-change-republicans.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-YaleCC_survey2021-214" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-YaleCC_survey2021_214-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFLeiserowitzCarmanButtermoreWang2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Leiserowitz, A.; Carman, J.; Buttermore, N.; Wang, X.; et al. (June 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/international-climate-opinion-february-2021d.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>International Public Opinion on Climate Change</i></a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. New Haven, CT: Yale Program on Climate Change Communication and Facebook Data for Good. p. 7. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210628140823/https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/international-climate-opinion-february-2021d.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 28 June 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Public+Opinion+on+Climate+Change&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Yale+Program+on+Climate+Change+Communication+and+Facebook+Data+for+Good&rft.date=2021-06&rft.aulast=Leiserowitz&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Carman%2C+J.&rft.au=Buttermore%2C+N.&rft.au=Wang%2C+X.&rft.au=Rosenthal%2C+S.&rft.au=Marlon%2C+J.&rft.au=Mulcahy%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclimatecommunication.yale.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F06%2Finternational-climate-opinion-february-2021d.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-UNsurvey_202101-215" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-UNsurvey_202101_215-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">● Survey results from: <cite class="citation book cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/climate-and-disaster-resilience-/The-Peoples-Climate-Vote-Results.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Peoples' Climate Vote</i></a>. 26 January 2021. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210128091326/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/climate-and-disaster-resilience-/The-Peoples-Climate-Vote-Results.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peoples%27+Climate+Vote&rft.pub=United+Nations+Development+Programme&rft.date=2021-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.undp.org%2Fcontent%2Fundp%2Fen%2Fhome%2Flibrarypage%2Fclimate-and-disaster-resilience-%2FThe-Peoples-Climate-Vote-Results.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment" style="color: #dd3333;"><code class="cs1-code" style="background: inherit; border-radius: 2px; border: none; color: inherit; font-family: monospace, monospace; padding: inherit;">{{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment" style="color: #dd3333;"><code class="cs1-code" style="background: inherit; border-radius: 2px; border: none; color: inherit; font-family: monospace, monospace; padding: inherit;">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span> Fig. 3. <br />● Data re top emitters from: <cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions?end_year=2018&start_year=1990" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Historical GHG Emissions / Global Historical Emissions"</a>. <i>ClimateWatchData.org</i>. Climate Watch. 2021. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210521225317/https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions?end_year=2018&start_year=1990" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ClimateWatchData.org&rft.atitle=Historical+GHG+Emissions+%2F+Global+Historical+Emissions&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.climatewatchdata.org%2Fghg-emissions%3Fend_year%3D2018%26start_year%3D1990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-disinformation-216" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-disinformation_216-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-disinformation_216-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFDunlap2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Dunlap 2013</a>: "From the outset, there has been an organized 'disinformation' campaign ... to 'manufacture uncertainty' over AGW, especially by attacking climate science and scientists. This appears an effective strategy given that confidence in climate science and trust in climate scientists are key factors influencing the public's views of AGW."</span></li><li id="cite_note-Matthews_153–168-217" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Matthews_153%E2%80%93168_217-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMatthews2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Matthews, Paul (3 April 2015). "Why Are People Skeptical about Climate Change? Some Insights from Blog Comments". <i>Environmental Communication</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 153–168. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17524032.2014.999694" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1080/17524032.2014.999694</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1752-4032" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1752-4032</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143727181" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">143727181</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Communication&rft.atitle=Why+Are+People+Skeptical+about+Climate+Change%3F+Some+Insights+from+Blog+Comments&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=153-168&rft.date=2015-04-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143727181%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1752-4032&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17524032.2014.999694&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-218" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-218" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFABC_News/Time/Stanford_Poll2006" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">ABC News/Time/Stanford Poll (14 March 2006). <a class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/images/Politics/1009a1GlobalWarming.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Intensity Spikes in Concern on Warming; Many See a Change in Weather Patterns"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>ABC News</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210730194312/https://abcnews.go.com/images/Politics/1009a1GlobalWarming.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 30 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">10 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Intensity+Spikes+in+Concern+on+Warming%3B+Many+See+a+Change+in+Weather+Patterns&rft.date=2006-03-14&rft.au=ABC+News%2FTime%2FStanford+Poll&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2Fimages%2FPolitics%2F1009a1GlobalWarming.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-219" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-219" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFHayes2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hayes, Chris (2012). "Chapter 4". <i>Twilight of the Elites</i>. New York: Broadway. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-72047-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-72047-4"><bdi>978-0-307-72047-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4&rft.btitle=Twilight+of+the+Elites&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Broadway&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-307-72047-4&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-PewSurvey_2020-220" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-PewSurvey_2020_220-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/02/13/as-economic-concerns-recede-environmental-protection-rises-on-the-publics-policy-agenda/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"As Economic Concerns Recede, Environmental Protection Rises on the Public's Policy Agenda / Partisan gap on dealing with climate change gets even wider"</a>. <i>PewResearch.org</i>. Pew Research Center. 13 February 2020. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210116155958/https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/02/13/as-economic-concerns-recede-environmental-protection-rises-on-the-publics-policy-agenda/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PewResearch.org&rft.atitle=As+Economic+Concerns+Recede%2C+Environmental+Protection+Rises+on+the+Public%27s+Policy+Agenda+%2F+Partisan+gap+on+dealing+with+climate+change+gets+even+wider&rft.date=2020-02-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fpolitics%2F2020%2F02%2F13%2Fas-economic-concerns-recede-environmental-protection-rises-on-the-publics-policy-agenda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> (Discontinuity resulted from survey changing in 2015 from reciting "global warming" to "climate change".)</span></li><li id="cite_note-Gallup_20230420-221" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Gallup_20230420_221-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFSaad2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Saad, Lydia (20 April 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/474542/steady-six-say-global-warming-effects-begun.aspx" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"A Steady Six in 10 Say Global Warming's Effects Have Begun"</a>. Gallup, Inc. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230420123700/https://news.gallup.com/poll/474542/steady-six-say-global-warming-effects-begun.aspx" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 20 April 2023.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Steady+Six+in+10+Say+Global+Warming%27s+Effects+Have+Begun&rft.pub=Gallup%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2023-04-20&rft.aulast=Saad&rft.aufirst=Lydia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.gallup.com%2Fpoll%2F474542%2Fsteady-six-say-global-warming-effects-begun.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Guardian_20211026-222" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Guardian_20211026_222-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Guardian_20211026_222-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMcGreal2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">McGreal, Chris (26 October 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211026122356/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2021. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Source: Guardian/Vice/CCN/YouGov poll. Note: ±4% margin of error.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Revealed%3A+60%25+of+Americans+say+oil+firms+are+to+blame+for+the+climate+crisis&rft.date=2021-10-26&rft.aulast=McGreal&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2021%2Foct%2F26%2Fclimate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Pew_20220301-223" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Pew_20220301_223-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Pew_20220301_223-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFTysonFunkKennedy2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Tyson, Alec; Funk, Cary; Kennedy, Brian (1 March 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/03/01/carbon-neutral-2050-appendix/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Americans Largely Favor U.S. Taking Steps To Become Carbon Neutral by 2050 / Appendix (Detailed charts and tables)"</a>. <i>Pew Research</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220418220503/https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/03/01/carbon-neutral-2050-appendix/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2022.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research&rft.atitle=Americans+Largely+Favor+U.S.+Taking+Steps+To+Become+Carbon+Neutral+by+2050+%2F+Appendix+%28Detailed+charts+and+tables%29&rft.date=2022-03-01&rft.aulast=Tyson&rft.aufirst=Alec&rft.au=Funk%2C+Cary&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fscience%2F2022%2F03%2F01%2Fcarbon-neutral-2050-appendix%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Pew_20220831-224" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Pew_20220831_224-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFPoushterFaganGubbala2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Poushter, Jacob; Fagan, Moira; Gubbala, Sneha (31 August 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey"</a>. <i>pewresearch.org</i>. Pew Research Center. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220831225832/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 31 August 2022. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Only statistically significant differences shown.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pewresearch.org&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+Remains+Top+Global+Threat+Across+19-Country+Survey&rft.date=2022-08-31&rft.aulast=Poushter&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft.au=Fagan%2C+Moira&rft.au=Gubbala%2C+Sneha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fglobal%2F2022%2F08%2F31%2Fclimate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-225" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-225" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFHoweMildenbergerMarlonLeiserowitz2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Howe, Peter D.; Mildenberger, Matto; Marlon, Jennifer R.; Leiserowitz, Anthony (1 January 2015). <a class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/2bz0416w" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Geographic variation in opinions on climate change at state and local scales in the USA"</a>. <i>Nature Climate Change</i>. <b>5</b> (6): 596–603. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015NatCC...5..596H" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2015NatCC...5..596H</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnclimate2583" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/nclimate2583</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1758-678X" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1758-678X</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54549073" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">54549073</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011216/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2bz0416w" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">29 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Geographic+variation+in+opinions+on+climate+change+at+state+and+local+scales+in+the+USA&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=596-603&rft.date=2015-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnclimate2583&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54549073%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1758-678X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015NatCC...5..596H&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Peter+D.&rft.au=Mildenberger%2C+Matto&rft.au=Marlon%2C+Jennifer+R.&rft.au=Leiserowitz%2C+Anthony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F2bz0416w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-226" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-226" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMorrison2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Morrison_(astrophysicist)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="David Morrison (astrophysicist)">Morrison, David</a> (2018). "Some Good News on Climate: A Big Shift among TV Weathercasters". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>. <b>42</b> (5): 6.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Some+Good+News+on+Climate%3A+A+Big+Shift+among+TV+Weathercasters&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Morrison&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-227" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-227" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBoykoffBoykoff2004" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Boykoff, M.; Boykoff, J. (July 2004). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151106081048/http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/publications/downloads/boykoff04-gec.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Balance as bias: global warming and the US prestige press"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Global Environmental Change Part A</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 125–136. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gloenvcha.2003.10.001" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2003.10.001</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/publications/downloads/boykoff04-gec.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> on 6 November 2015.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Environmental+Change+Part+A&rft.atitle=Balance+as+bias%3A+global+warming+and+the+US+prestige+press&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=125-136&rft.date=2004-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gloenvcha.2003.10.001&rft.aulast=Boykoff&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Boykoff%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eci.ox.ac.uk%2Fpublications%2Fdownloads%2Fboykoff04-gec.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-228" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-228" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFAntilla2005" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Antilla 2005</a>: "One problematic trend of the US media has been the suggestion that substantive disagreement exists within the international scientific community as to the reality of anthropogenic climate change; however, this concept is false ... Although the science of climate change does not appear to be a prime news topic for most of the 255 newspapers included in this study ... articles that framed climate change in terms of debate, controversy, or uncertainty were plentiful."</span></li><li id="cite_note-229" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-229" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "Media analysis of climate change reporting was always of interest to academics but from the mid-2000s, it became one of the key areas of research interest, highlighting a tendency to give undue weight to voices questioning the science of climate change."</span></li><li id="cite_note-230" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-230" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFAntilla2005" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Antilla 2005</a>: "Not only were there many examples of journalistic balance that led to bias, but some of the news outlets repeatedly used climate sceptics—with known fossil fuel industry ties—as primary definers"</span></li><li id="cite_note-231" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-231" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDispensaBrulle2003" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dispensa, Jaclyn Marisa; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brulle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Robert Brulle">Brulle, Robert J.</a> (2003). "Media's social construction of environmental issues: focus on global warming – a comparative study". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Sociology_and_Social_Policy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy">International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy</a></i>. <b>23</b> (10): 74–105. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F01443330310790327" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1108/01443330310790327</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0144-333X" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0144-333X</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144662365" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">144662365</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Sociology+and+Social+Policy&rft.atitle=Media%27s+social+construction+of+environmental+issues%3A+focus+on+global+warming+%E2%80%93+a+comparative+study&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=74-105&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144662365%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0144-333X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F01443330310790327&rft.aulast=Dispensa&rft.aufirst=Jaclyn+Marisa&rft.au=Brulle%2C+Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-232" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-232" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "news coverage of scepticism is mostly limited to the USA and the UK ... the type of sceptics who question whether global temperatures are warming are almost exclusively found in the US and UK newspapers. Sceptics who challenge the need for robust action to combat climate change also have a much stronger presence in the media of the same two countries. "</span></li><li id="cite_note-233" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-233" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFDavid2006" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">David, Adam (20 September 2006). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/sep/20/oilandpetrol.business" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Royal Society tells Exxon: stop funding climate change denial"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. London. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140211153615/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/sep/20/oilandpetrol.business" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">12 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Royal+Society+tells+Exxon%3A+stop+funding+climate+change+denial&rft.date=2006-09-20&rft.aulast=David&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2006%2Fsep%2F20%2Foilandpetrol.business&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-234" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-234" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFSandell2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sandell, Clayton (3 January 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/Business/story?id=2767979&page=1" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Report: Big Money Confusing Public on Global Warming"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_News" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ABC News">ABC News</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070219122415/http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/Business/story?id=2767979&page=1" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 19 February 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">12 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Report%3A+Big+Money+Confusing+Public+on+Global+Warming&rft.date=2007-01-03&rft.aulast=Sandell&rft.aufirst=Clayton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FTechnology%2FBusiness%2Fstory%3Fid%3D2767979%26page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-235" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-235" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "in the USA and the UK ... sceptical voices generally appear in much higher numbers ... in France, the UK and the USA ... right-leaning newspapers are much more likely to include uncontested sceptical voices."</span></li><li id="cite_note-Saad2007HollywoodHeathUpConcern-236" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Saad2007HollywoodHeathUpConcern_236-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFSaad2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Saad, Lydia (21 March 2007). <a class="external text" href="http://www.gallup.com/poll/26932/Did-Hollywoods-Glare-Heat-Public-Concern-About-Global-Warming.aspx" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Did Hollywood's Glare Heat Up Public Concern About Global Warming?"</a>. Gallup. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161223194123/http://www.gallup.com/poll/26932/Did-Hollywoods-Glare-Heat-Public-Concern-About-Global-Warming.aspx" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">12 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Did+Hollywood%27s+Glare+Heat+Up+Public+Concern+About+Global+Warming%3F&rft.pub=Gallup&rft.date=2007-03-21&rft.aulast=Saad&rft.aufirst=Lydia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gallup.com%2Fpoll%2F26932%2FDid-Hollywoods-Glare-Heat-Public-Concern-About-Global-Warming.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-237" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-237" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFHolthaus2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Holthaus, Eric (6 April 2015). <a class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/04/06/new_climate_change_poll_shows_americans_believe_in_global_warming.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Poll: Americans Don't Think Climate Change Will Affect Them Personally"</a>. <i>Slate</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1091-2339" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1091-2339</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181014233847/http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/04/06/new_climate_change_poll_shows_americans_believe_in_global_warming.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">15 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=Poll%3A+Americans+Don%27t+Think+Climate+Change+Will+Affect+Them+Personally&rft.date=2015-04-06&rft.issn=1091-2339&rft.aulast=Holthaus&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Fblogs%2Fthe_slatest%2F2015%2F04%2F06%2Fnew_climate_change_poll_shows_americans_believe_in_global_warming.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-238" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-238" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBoykoffBoykoff2004" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Boykoff, M. 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"Balance as bias: Global warming and the US prestige press". <i>Global Environmental Change</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 125–136. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gloenvcha.2003.10.001" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2003.10.001</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Environmental+Change&rft.atitle=Balance+as+bias%3A+Global+warming+and+the+US+prestige+press&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=125-136&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gloenvcha.2003.10.001&rft.aulast=Boykoff&rft.aufirst=M.+T.&rft.au=Boykoff%2C+J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-239" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-239" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFMcKenna2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">McKenna, Phil (13 September 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/13092018/science-teachers-climate-change-denial-nsta-national-association-position-statement-state-standards-heartland" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"National Teachers Group Confronts Climate Denial: Keep the Politics Out of Science Class"</a>. <i>InsideClimate News</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210728121000/https://insideclimatenews.org/news/13092018/science-teachers-climate-change-denial-nsta-national-association-position-statement-state-standards-heartland/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=InsideClimate+News&rft.atitle=National+Teachers+Group+Confronts+Climate+Denial%3A+Keep+the+Politics+Out+of+Science+Class&rft.date=2018-09-13&rft.aulast=McKenna&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finsideclimatenews.org%2Fnews%2F13092018%2Fscience-teachers-climate-change-denial-nsta-national-association-position-statement-state-standards-heartland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-240" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-240" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation magazine cs1" id="CITEREFMaza2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Maza, Cristina (11 November 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/155669/far-right-climate-denial-growing-europe" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Far-Right Climate Denial Is Growing in Europe"</a>. <i>The New Republic</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-6583" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0028-6583</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110170152/https://newrepublic.com/article/155669/far-right-climate-denial-growing-europe" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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overflow-wrap: break-word;">Plottu, Pierre; Macé, Maxime (23 April 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.liberation.fr/politique/climato-scepticisme-il-y-a-un-ressentiment-anti-ecologie-aupres-de-populations-qui-se-sentent-stigmatisees-20230423_RPK7YTLIVVCC5NVLAEWWHXIMLI/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climato-scepticisme : «Il y a un ressentiment anti-écologie auprès de populations qui se sentent stigmatisées»"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Libération">Libération</a></i> (in French).</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lib%C3%A9ration&rft.atitle=Climato-scepticisme+%3A+%C2%ABIl+y+a+un+ressentiment+anti-%C3%A9cologie+aupr%C3%A8s+de+populations+qui+se+sentent+stigmatis%C3%A9es%C2%BB&rft.date=2023-04-23&rft.aulast=Plottu&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft.au=Mac%C3%A9%2C+Maxime&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.liberation.fr%2Fpolitique%2Fclimato-scepticisme-il-y-a-un-ressentiment-anti-ecologie-aupres-de-populations-qui-se-sentent-stigmatisees-20230423_RPK7YTLIVVCC5NVLAEWWHXIMLI%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-242" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-242" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" id="CITEREFBentolilaBornsteinCalatayud2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bentolila, Sacha; Bornstein, Roman; Calatayud, Benoît (28 April 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jean-jaures.org/publication/climatoscepticisme-le-nouvel-horizon-du-populisme-francais/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climatoscepticisme : le nouvel horizon du populisme français"</a>. <i>Fondation Jean-Jaurès</i> (in French).</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fondation+Jean-Jaur%C3%A8s&rft.atitle=Climatoscepticisme+%3A+le+nouvel+horizon+du+populisme+fran%C3%A7ais&rft.date=2023-04-28&rft.aulast=Bentolila&rft.aufirst=Sacha&rft.au=Bornstein%2C+Roman&rft.au=Calatayud%2C+Beno%C3%AEt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jean-jaures.org%2Fpublication%2Fclimatoscepticisme-le-nouvel-horizon-du-populisme-francais%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-243" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-243" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" id="CITEREFWoessner2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Woessner, Géraldine (8 April 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.lepoint.fr/environnement/steven-koonin-la-coqueluche-des-climatosceptiques-08-04-2023-2515425_1927.php" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Steven Koonin, la coqueluche des climatosceptiques"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Point" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Le Point">Le Point</a></i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">4 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Institute+for+Environment+and+Development&rft.atitle=Climate+denial+and+the+populist+right&rft.date=2016-11-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iied.org%2Fclimate-denial-populist-right&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-245" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-245" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFHarari2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Harari, Yuval Noah (20 February 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ted.com/talks/yuval_noah_harari_nationalism_vs_globalism_the_new_political_divide/transcript?language=en" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Transcript of "Nationalism vs. globalism: the new political divide"<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210330102111/https://www.ted.com/talks/yuval_noah_harari_nationalism_vs_globalism_the_new_political_divide/transcript?language=en" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">4 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transcript+of+%22Nationalism+vs.+globalism%3A+the+new+political+divide%22&rft.date=2017-02-20&rft.aulast=Harari&rft.aufirst=Yuval+Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ted.com%2Ftalks%2Fyuval_noah_harari_nationalism_vs_globalism_the_new_political_divide%2Ftranscript%3Flanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-246" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-246" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFO'Neil2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">O'Neil, Luke (29 May 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/may/29/energy-department-molecules-freedom-fossil-fuel-rebranding" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"US energy department rebrands fossil fuels as 'molecules of freedom'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0261-3077</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210821121856/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/may/29/energy-department-molecules-freedom-fossil-fuel-rebranding" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 21 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=US+energy+department+rebrands+fossil+fuels+as+%27molecules+of+freedom%27&rft.date=2019-05-29&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=O%27Neil&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbusiness%2F2019%2Fmay%2F29%2Fenergy-department-molecules-freedom-fossil-fuel-rebranding&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-247" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-247" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFRobert_J._Shiller2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Shiller" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Robert J. Shiller">Robert J. Shiller</a> (27 March 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/29/upshot/how-idealism-expressed-in-concrete-steps-can-fight-climate-change.html?_r=0" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How Idealism, Expressed in Concrete Steps, Can Fight Climate Change"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210608161656/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/29/upshot/how-idealism-expressed-in-concrete-steps-can-fight-climate-change.html?_r=0" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">6 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Idealism%2C+Expressed+in+Concrete+Steps%2C+Can+Fight+Climate+Change&rft.date=2015-03-27&rft.au=Robert+J.+Shiller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F03%2F29%2Fupshot%2Fhow-idealism-expressed-in-concrete-steps-can-fight-climate-change.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-248" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-248" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFKyla_Mandel2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kyla Mandel (12 January 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.desmog.uk/2016/01/12/why-are-climate-deniers-campaigning-britain-leave-eu" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Why Are Climate Deniers Campaigning for Britain to Leave the EU?"</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180330213058/https://www.desmog.uk/2016/01/12/why-are-climate-deniers-campaigning-britain-leave-eu" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">5 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Are+Climate+Deniers+Campaigning+for+Britain+to+Leave+the+EU%3F&rft.date=2016-01-12&rft.au=Kyla+Mandel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.desmog.uk%2F2016%2F01%2F12%2Fwhy-are-climate-deniers-campaigning-britain-leave-eu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-249" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-249" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFHelmer2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Helmer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Roger Helmer">Helmer, Roger</a> (14 October 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170407061337/http://www.rogerhelmermep.co.uk/speeches/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Plenary Speech Climate Change October 14th 2015"</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.rogerhelmermep.co.uk/speeches/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 7 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">6 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plenary+Speech+Climate+Change+October+14th+2015&rft.date=2015-10-14&rft.aulast=Helmer&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rogerhelmermep.co.uk%2Fspeeches%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-250" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-250" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.niskanencenter.org/climate-change-denial-historical-consciousness-trumpism-lessons-carl-schmitt/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Change Denial as the Historical Consciousness of Trumpism: Lessons from Carl Schmitt"</a>. <i>Niskanen Center</i>. 10 November 2017. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817084623/https://www.niskanencenter.org/climate-change-denial-historical-consciousness-trumpism-lessons-carl-schmitt/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Niskanen+Center&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+Denial+as+the+Historical+Consciousness+of+Trumpism%3A+Lessons+from+Carl+Schmitt&rft.date=2017-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.niskanencenter.org%2Fclimate-change-denial-historical-consciousness-trumpism-lessons-carl-schmitt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Guardian_20211121-251" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Guardian_20211121_251-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Guardian_20211121_251-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMilman2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Milman, Oliver (21 November 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/21/climate-denial-far-right-immigration" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate denial is waning on the right. What's replacing it might be just as scary"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211121082038/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/21/climate-denial-far-right-immigration" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Climate+denial+is+waning+on+the+right.+What%27s+replacing+it+might+be+just+as+scary&rft.date=2021-11-21&rft.aulast=Milman&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2021%2Fnov%2F21%2Fclimate-denial-far-right-immigration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-252" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-252" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFJacquesDunlapFreeman2008" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Jacques, Dunlap & Freeman 2008</a>, p. 352: "While these CTTs sometimes joined corporate America in directly lobbying against environmental policies, their primary tactic in combating environmentalism has been to challenge the need for protective environmental policy by questioning the seriousness of environmental problems and the validity of environmental science."</span></li><li id="cite_note-253" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-253" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFDryzekNorgaardSchlosberg2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dryzek" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="John Dryzek">Dryzek, John S.</a>; <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Norgaard" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Richard Norgaard">Norgaard, Richard B.</a>; Schlosberg, David (2011). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 154. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-968342-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-968342-0"><bdi>978-0-19-968342-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Climate+Change+and+Society&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-968342-0&rft.aulast=Dryzek&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft.au=Norgaard%2C+Richard+B.&rft.au=Schlosberg%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-254" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-254" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/climate-denial-machine-how-fossil-fuel-industry-blocks-climate-action" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Climate Denial Machine: How the Fossil Fuel Industry Blocks Climate Action"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Climate_Reality_Project" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Climate Reality Project">The Climate Reality Project</a></i>. 5 September 2019. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211104225444/https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/climate-denial-machine-how-fossil-fuel-industry-blocks-climate-action" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Climate+Reality+Project&rft.atitle=The+Climate+Denial+Machine%3A+How+the+Fossil+Fuel+Industry+Blocks+Climate+Action&rft.date=2019-09-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.climaterealityproject.org%2Fblog%2Fclimate-denial-machine-how-fossil-fuel-industry-blocks-climate-action&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-255" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-255" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBorowy2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Borowy, Iris (2014). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=st9JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Defining Sustainable Development for Our Common Future: A History of the World Commission on Environment and Development</i></a>. Routledge. p. 44. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-96122-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-96122-0"><bdi>978-1-135-96122-0</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601200812/https://books.google.com/books?id=st9JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">9 June</span> 2015</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Corporations and conservative think tanks such as The Heritage Foundation, Marshall Institute, the Cato Institute and the American Enterprise Institute waged campaigns to obscure scientific evidence about acid rain, ozone depletion and climate change and, thereby, to prevent or rollback environmental, health and safety regulations.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defining+Sustainable+Development+for+Our+Common+Future%3A+A+History+of+the+World+Commission+on+Environment+and+Development&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-135-96122-0&rft.aulast=Borowy&rft.aufirst=Iris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dst9JAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-256" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-256" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFManjit2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Manjit, Kumar (18 October 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/merchants-of-doubt-by-naomi-oreskes-amp-erik-m-conway-2109256.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Merchants of Doubt, By Naomi Oreskes & Erik M Conway"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. London. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200303011352/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/merchants-of-doubt-by-naomi-oreskes-amp-erik-m-conway-2109256.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 3 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Merchants+of+Doubt%2C+By+Naomi+Oreskes+%26+Erik+M+Conway&rft.date=2010-10-18&rft.aulast=Manjit&rft.aufirst=Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Farts-entertainment%2Fbooks%2Freviews%2Fmerchants-of-doubt-by-naomi-oreskes-amp-erik-m-conway-2109256.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-HertsgaardSlept-257" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-HertsgaardSlept_257-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation magazine cs1" id="CITEREFHertsgaard2006" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hertsgaard, Mark (May 2006). <a class="external text" href="http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2006/05/warming200605" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"While Washington Slept"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(magazine)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vanity Fair (magazine)">Vanity Fair</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141227054637/http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2006/05/warming200605" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vanity+Fair&rft.atitle=While+Washington+Slept&rft.date=2006-05&rft.aulast=Hertsgaard&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vanityfair.com%2Fpolitics%2Ffeatures%2F2006%2F05%2Fwarming200605&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-258" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-258" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Painter & Ashe 2012</a>: "The work by McCright and Dunlap has highlighted the effectiveness of organized climate sceptic groups in influencing US policy making in the 1990s and early 2000s, including their central role in the rejection of the Kyoto Protocol by the US Congress"</span></li><li id="cite_note-brulle2013-259" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-brulle2013_259-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBrulle2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Brulle, Robert J. (21 December 2013). "Institutionalizing delay: foundation funding and the creation of U.S. climate change counter-movement organizations". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Change_(journal)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climatic Change (journal)">Climatic Change</a></i>. <b>122</b> (4): 681–694. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ClCh..122..681B" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2014ClCh..122..681B</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-013-1018-7" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10584-013-1018-7</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27538787" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">27538787</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climatic+Change&rft.atitle=Institutionalizing+delay%3A+foundation+funding+and+the+creation+of+U.S.+climate+change+counter-movement+organizations&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=681-694&rft.date=2013-12-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27538787%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-013-1018-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014ClCh..122..681B&rft.aulast=Brulle&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-guardian20131220-260" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-guardian20131220_260-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGoldenberg2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzanne_Goldenberg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Suzanne Goldenberg">Goldenberg, Suzanne</a> (20 December 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/dec/20/conservative-groups-1bn-against-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Conservative groups spend up to $1bn a year to fight action on climate change"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211026160911/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/dec/20/conservative-groups-1bn-against-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Conservative+groups+spend+up+to+%241bn+a+year+to+fight+action+on+climate+change&rft.date=2013-12-20&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2013%2Fdec%2F20%2Fconservative-groups-1bn-against-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-sciam-261" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-sciam_261-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFFischer2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Fischer, Douglas (23 December 2013). <a class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dark-money-funds-climate-change-denial-effort/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"<span class="cs1-kern-left" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"></span>"Dark Money" Funds Climate Change Denial Effort"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211031133811/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dark-money-funds-climate-change-denial-effort/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 31 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">29 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=%22Dark+Money%22+Funds+Climate+Change+Denial+Effort&rft.date=2013-12-23&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fdark-money-funds-climate-change-denial-effort%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-guardian20130214-262" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-guardian20130214_262-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGoldenberg2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Goldenberg, Suzanne (14 February 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/feb/14/funding-climate-change-denial-thinktanks-network" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Secret funding helped build vast network of climate denial thinktanks"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190525121334/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/feb/14/funding-climate-change-denial-thinktanks-network" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 February</span>2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Secret+funding+helped+build+vast+network+of+climate+denial+thinktanks&rft.date=2013-02-14&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2013%2Ffeb%2F14%2Ffunding-climate-change-denial-thinktanks-network&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-frontline20121-23-263" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-frontline20121-23_263-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/environment/climate-of-doubt/robert-brulle-inside-the-climate-change-countermovement/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Robert Brulle: Inside the Climate Change "Countermovement"<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontline_(U.S._TV_series)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Frontline (U.S. TV series)">Frontline</a></i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PBS">PBS</a>. 23 October 2012. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151024142621/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/environment/climate-of-doubt/robert-brulle-inside-the-climate-change-countermovement/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">21 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontline&rft.atitle=Robert+Brulle%3A+Inside+the+Climate+Change+%22Countermovement%22&rft.date=2012-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fpages%2Ffrontline%2Fenvironment%2Fclimate-of-doubt%2Frobert-brulle-inside-the-climate-change-countermovement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-264" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-264" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/CSAjobs.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Jobs and the Climate Stewardship Act: How Curbing Global Warming Can Increase Employment"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. Natural Resources Defense Council. February 2005: 21. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211003031754/https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/CSAjobs.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 3 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">13 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Jobs+and+the+Climate+Stewardship+Act%3A+How+Curbing+Global+Warming+Can+Increase+Employment&rft.pages=21&rft.date=2005-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrdc.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FCSAjobs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:0-265" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-:0_265-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFFranta2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Franta, Benjamin (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09644016.2021.1947636" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Weaponizing economics: Big Oil, economic consultants, and climate policy delay"</a>. <i>Environmental Politics</i>. <b>31</b> (4): 555–575. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09644016.2021.1947636" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1080/09644016.2021.1947636</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0964-4016" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0964-4016</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Politics&rft.atitle=Weaponizing+economics%3A+Big+Oil%2C+economic+consultants%2C+and+climate+policy+delay&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=555-575&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09644016.2021.1947636&rft.issn=0964-4016&rft.aulast=Franta&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F09644016.2021.1947636&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-266" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-266" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFAntilla2005" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Antilla 2005</a>: "A number of large corporations that profit substantially from fossil fuel consumption, such as ExxonMobil, provide financial support to their political allies in an effort to undermine public trust in climate science."</span></li><li id="cite_note-267" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-267" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFFarrell2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Farrell, Justin (2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4711825" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"<i>Corporate funding and ideological polarization about climate change</i>. In"</a>. <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i>. <b>113</b> (1): 92–97. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1509433112" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.1509433112</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4711825" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">4711825</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26598653" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">26598653</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Corporate+funding+and+ideological+polarization+about+climate+change.+In&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=92-97&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4711825%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26598653&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1509433112&rft.aulast=Farrell&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4711825&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-268" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-268" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://theintercept.com/2019/05/16/coal-industry-climate-change-denial-cloud-peak-energy/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"A Major Coal Company Went Bust. Its Bankruptcy Filing Shows That It Was Funding Climate Change Denialism"</a>. 16 May 2019. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011539/https://theintercept.com/2019/05/16/coal-industry-climate-change-denial-cloud-peak-energy/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">20 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Major+Coal+Company+Went+Bust.+Its+Bankruptcy+Filing+Shows+That+It+Was+Funding+Climate+Change+Denialism&rft.date=2019-05-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheintercept.com%2F2019%2F05%2F16%2Fcoal-industry-climate-change-denial-cloud-peak-energy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-269" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-269" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/6006068-Cloud-Peak-Energy.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Cloud Peak Energy"</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210322005344/https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/6006068-Cloud-Peak-Energy.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">20 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cloud+Peak+Energy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.documentcloud.org%2Fdocuments%2F6006068-Cloud-Peak-Energy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-270" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-270" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFSample2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sample, Ian (2 February 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/feb/02/frontpagenews.climatechange" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Scientists offered cash to dispute climate study"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. London. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161104143233/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/feb/02/frontpagenews.climatechange" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 August</span> 2007</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">The AEI has received more than $1.6m from ExxonMobil and more than 20 of its staff have worked as consultants to the Bush administration. Lee Raymond, a former head of ExxonMobil, is the vice-chairman of AEI's board of trustees.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Scientists+offered+cash+to+dispute+climate+study&rft.date=2007-02-02&rft.aulast=Sample&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2007%2Ffeb%2F02%2Ffrontpagenews.climatechange&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Newsweek-271" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Newsweek_271-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Newsweek_271-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Newsweek_271-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBegley2007" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Begley 2007</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-G2-272" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-G2_272-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFAdams2006" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Adams, David (20 September 2006). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/sep/20/oilandpetrol.business" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Royal Society tells Exxon: stop funding climate change denial"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. London. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140211153615/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/sep/20/oilandpetrol.business" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Royal+Society+tells+Exxon%3A+stop+funding+climate+change+denial&rft.date=2006-09-20&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2006%2Fsep%2F20%2Foilandpetrol.business&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-273" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-273" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFWard2006" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Ward, Bob (4 September 2006). <a class="external text" href="http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/documents/2006/09/19/LettertoNick.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Letter to Nick Thomas, Director, Corporate affairs, Esso UK Ltd. (ExxonMobil)"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. London: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170306053140/http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/documents/2006/09/19/LettertoNick.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 6 March 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">6 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Letter+to+Nick+Thomas%2C+Director%2C+Corporate+affairs%2C+Esso+UK+Ltd.+%28ExxonMobil%29&rft.date=2006-09-04&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimage.guardian.co.uk%2Fsys-files%2FGuardian%2Fdocuments%2F2006%2F09%2F19%2FLettertoNick.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-274" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-274" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www-tc.pbs.org/moyers/moyersonamerica/green/isanewsletter.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Interfaith Stewardship Alliance Newsletter"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Moyers on America</i>. 2006. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210730195618/http://www-tc.pbs.org/moyers/moyersonamerica/green/isanewsletter.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 30 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">10 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Moyers+on+America&rft.atitle=Interfaith+Stewardship+Alliance+Newsletter&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-tc.pbs.org%2Fmoyers%2Fmoyersonamerica%2Fgreen%2Fisanewsletter.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-275" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-275" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jennings, Katie; Grandoni, Dino, & Rust, Susanne. (23 October 2015) <a class="external text" href="http://graphics.latimes.com/exxon-research/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How Exxon went from leader to skeptic on climate change research"</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211108115302/https://graphics.latimes.com/exxon-research/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 8 November 2021 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. Retrieved 26 October 2015.</span></li><li id="cite_note-Science_30230112-276" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Science_30230112_276-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSupranRahmstorfOreskes2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Supran, G.; Rahmstorf, S.; Oreskes, N. (13 January 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abk0063" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Assessing ExxonMobil's global warming projections"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>379</b> (6628): eabk0063. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Sci...379.0063S" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2023Sci...379.0063S</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abk0063" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1126/science.abk0063</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36634176" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">36634176</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255749694" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">255749694</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Assessing+ExxonMobil%27s+global+warming+projections&rft.volume=379&rft.issue=6628&rft.pages=eabk0063&rft.date=2023-01-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abk0063&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255749694%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36634176&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023Sci...379.0063S&rft.aulast=Supran&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Rahmstorf%2C+S.&rft.au=Oreskes%2C+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abk0063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-277" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-277" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Revkin, Andrew C. <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/24/science/earth/24deny.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Industry Ignored Its Scientists on Climate</a><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210609002637/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/24/science/earth/24deny.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 9 June 2021 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The New York Times</i>. 23 April 2009.</span></li><li id="cite_note-278" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-278" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFBradsher1999" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bradsher, Keith (7 December 1999). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/07/business/ford-announces-its-withdrawal-from-global-climate-coalition.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Ford Announces Its Withdrawal From Global Climate Coalition"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181002122740/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/07/business/ford-announces-its-withdrawal-from-global-climate-coalition.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">21 July</span>2013</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">the Ford Motor Company said today that it would pull out of the Global Climate Coalition, a group of big manufacturers and oil and mining companies that lobbies against restrictions on emissions of gases linked to global warming.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Ford+Announces+Its+Withdrawal+From+Global+Climate+Coalition&rft.date=1999-12-07&rft.aulast=Bradsher&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1999%2F12%2F07%2Fbusiness%2Fford-announces-its-withdrawal-from-global-climate-coalition.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-279" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-279" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.heatisonline.org/contentserver/objecthandlers/index.cfm?id=3440&method=full" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"GCC Suffers Technical Knockout, Industry defections decimate Global Climate Coalition"</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180614195233/http://www.heatisonline.org/contentserver/objecthandlers/index.cfm?id=3440&method=full" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">21 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GCC+Suffers+Technical+Knockout%2C+Industry+defections+decimate+Global+Climate+Coalition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heatisonline.org%2Fcontentserver%2Fobjecthandlers%2Findex.cfm%3Fid%3D3440%26method%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-nyt20101020-280" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-nyt20101020_280-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFBroder2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Broder, John M. (20 October 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/21/us/politics/21climate.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Change Doubt Is Tea Party Article of Faith"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005081232/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/21/us/politics/21climate.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 September</span> 2017</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">The oil, coal and utility industries have collectively spent $500 million just since the beginning of 2009 to lobby against legislation to address climate change and to defeat candidates, like Mr. Hill, who support it, according to a new analysis from the Center for American Progress Action Fund ...</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+Doubt+Is+Tea+Party+Article+of+Faith&rft.date=2010-10-20&rft.aulast=Broder&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F10%2F21%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2F21climate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-cap20100927-281" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-cap20100927_281-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFWeissLeftonLyon2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Weiss, Daniel J.; Lefton, Rebecca; Lyon, Susan (27 September 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.americanprogressaction.org/issues/green/news/2010/09/27/8428/dirty-money/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Dirty Money, Oil Companies and Special Interests Spend Millions to Oppose Climate Legislation"</a>. Center for American Progress Action Fund. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011328/https://www.americanprogressaction.org/issues/green/news/2010/09/27/8428/dirty-money/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 September</span> 2017</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">The oil, gas, and coal industries have spent over $2 billion lobbying Congress since 1999. These three industries combined spent a whopping $543 million on lobbying in 2009 and the first two quarters of 2010.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dirty+Money%2C+Oil+Companies+and+Special+Interests+Spend+Millions+to+Oppose+Climate+Legislation&rft.pub=Center+for+American+Progress+Action+Fund&rft.date=2010-09-27&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Daniel+J.&rft.au=Lefton%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Lyon%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanprogressaction.org%2Fissues%2Fgreen%2Fnews%2F2010%2F09%2F27%2F8428%2Fdirty-money%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-282" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-282" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGillisSchartz2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Gillis, Justin; Schartz, John (21 February 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/22/us/ties-to-corporate-cash-for-climate-change-researcher-Wei-Hock-Soon.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Deeper Ties to Corporate Cash for Doubtful Climate Researcher"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211108123302/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/22/us/ties-to-corporate-cash-for-climate-change-researcher-Wei-Hock-Soon.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 March</span> 2015</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">newly released documents show the extent to which Dr. Soon's work has been tied to funding he received from corporate interests. He has accepted more than $1.2 million in money from the fossil-fuel industry over the last decade while failing to disclose that conflict of interest in most of his scientific papers. At least 11 papers he has published since 2008 omitted such a disclosure, and in at least eight of those cases, he appears to have violated ethical guidelines of the journals that published his work. The documents show that Dr. Soon, in correspondence with his corporate funders, described many of his scientific papers as "deliverables" that he completed in exchange for their money.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Deeper+Ties+to+Corporate+Cash+for+Doubtful+Climate+Researcher&rft.date=2015-02-21&rft.aulast=Gillis&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft.au=Schartz%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F02%2F22%2Fus%2Fties-to-corporate-cash-for-climate-change-researcher-Wei-Hock-Soon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-283" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-283" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGoldenberg2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Goldenberg, Suzanne (21 February 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/feb/21/climate-change-denier-willie-soon-funded-energy-industry" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Work of prominent climate change denier was funded by energy industry"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161110205426/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/feb/21/climate-change-denier-willie-soon-funded-energy-industry" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 March</span> 2015</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Over the last 14 years Willie Soon, a researcher at the Harvard-Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics, received a total of $1.25m from Exxon Mobil, Southern Company, the American Petroleum Institute (API) and a foundation run by the ultra-conservative Koch brothers ... the biggest single funder was Southern Company, one of the country's biggest electricity providers that relies heavily on coal.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Work+of+prominent+climate+change+denier+was+funded+by+energy+industry&rft.date=2015-02-21&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2015%2Ffeb%2F21%2Fclimate-change-denier-willie-soon-funded-energy-industry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-284" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-284" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFSchwartz2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Schwartz, John (25 February 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/26/science/lawmakers-seek-information-on-funding-for-climate-change-critics.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Lawmakers Seek Information on Funding for Climate Change Critics"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210706202522/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/26/science/lawmakers-seek-information-on-funding-for-climate-change-critics.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 6 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 March</span>2015</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Charles R. Alcock, director of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, said last week that a contract provision with funders of Dr. Soon's work that appeared to prohibit disclosure of funding sources "was a mistake." "We will not permit similar wording in future grant agreements"<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span></q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Lawmakers+Seek+Information+on+Funding+for+Climate+Change+Critics&rft.date=2015-02-25&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F02%2F26%2Fscience%2Flawmakers-seek-information-on-funding-for-climate-change-critics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Politico_20200917-285" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Politico_20200917_285-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFColmanGuillén2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Colman, Zack; Guillén, Alex (17 September 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/news/2020/09/17/trump-climate-rollbacks-increase-emissions-417311" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Trump's climate change rollbacks to drive up U.S. emissions"</a>. <i>Politico</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210226023146/https://www.politico.com/news/2020/09/17/trump-climate-rollbacks-increase-emissions-417311" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politico&rft.atitle=Trump%27s+climate+change+rollbacks+to+drive+up+U.S.+emissions&rft.date=2021-09-17&rft.aulast=Colman&rft.aufirst=Zack&rft.au=Guill%C3%A9n%2C+Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.com%2Fnews%2F2020%2F09%2F17%2Ftrump-climate-rollbacks-increase-emissions-417311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Brown_2013-286" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Brown_2013_286-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFBrown2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Brown, Alex (27 August 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/08/tom-coburn-labels-himself-a-global-warming-denier/442146/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Tom Coburn Labels Himself a "Global Warming Denier"<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601192345/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/08/tom-coburn-labels-himself-a-global-warming-denier/442146/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">23 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Tom+Coburn+Labels+Himself+a+%22Global+Warming+Denier%22&rft.date=2013-08-27&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fpolitics%2Farchive%2F2013%2F08%2Ftom-coburn-labels-himself-a-global-warming-denier%2F442146%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span> citing <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130827150105/http://www.tulsaworld.com/blogs/post.aspx/Coburn_on_revising_the_Constitution_global_warming/30-21971" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">TulsaWorld</a> [archived article]</span></li><li id="cite_note-287" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-287" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBåtstrand2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Båtstrand, Sondre (2015). "More than Markets: A Comparative Study of Nine Conservative Parties on Climate Change". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_and_Policy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Politics and Policy">Politics and Policy</a></i>. <b>43</b> (4): 538–561. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpolp.12122" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/polp.12122</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1747-1346" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1747-1346</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143331308" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">143331308</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">The U.S. Republican Party is an anomaly in denying anthropogenic climate change.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politics+and+Policy&rft.atitle=More+than+Markets%3A+A+Comparative+Study+of+Nine+Conservative+Parties+on+Climate+Change&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=538-561&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143331308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1747-1346&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fpolp.12122&rft.aulast=B%C3%A5tstrand&rft.aufirst=Sondre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-288" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-288" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFChait2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Chait" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jonathan Chait">Chait, Jonathan</a> (27 September 2015). <a class="external text" href="http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2015/09/whys-gop-only-science-denying-party-on-earth.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Why Are Republicans the Only Climate-Science-Denying Party in the World?"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(magazine)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New York (magazine)">New York</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170721045321/http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2015/09/whys-gop-only-science-denying-party-on-earth.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">20 September</span> 2017</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Of all the major conservative parties in the democratic world, the Republican Party stands alone in its denial of the legitimacy of climate science. Indeed, the Republican Party stands alone in its conviction that no national or international response to climate change is needed. To the extent that the party is divided on the issue, the gap separates candidates who openly dismiss climate science as a hoax, and those who, shying away from the political risks of blatant ignorance, instead couch their stance in the alleged impossibility of international action.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York&rft.atitle=Why+Are+Republicans+the+Only+Climate-Science-Denying+Party+in+the+World%3F&rft.date=2015-09-27&rft.aulast=Chait&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnymag.com%2Fdaily%2Fintelligencer%2F2015%2F09%2Fwhys-gop-only-science-denying-party-on-earth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-289" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-289" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/hotpolitics/interviews/luntz.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Frontline: Hot Politics: Interviews: Frank Luntz"</a>. PBS. 13 November 2006. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027201035/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/hotpolitics/interviews/luntz.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">19 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frontline%3A+Hot+Politics%3A+Interviews%3A+Frank+Luntz&rft.pub=PBS&rft.date=2006-11-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fpages%2Ffrontline%2Fhotpolitics%2Finterviews%2Fluntz.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-290" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-290" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFDavenportLipton2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Davenport, Coral; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Lipton" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eric Lipton">Lipton, Eric</a> (3 June 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/03/us/politics/republican-leaders-climate-change.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How G.O.P. Leaders Came to View Climate Change as Fake Science"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0362-4331</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170914183020/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/03/us/politics/republican-leaders-climate-change.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 September</span> 2017</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">The Republican Party's fast journey from debating how to combat human-caused climate change to arguing that it does not exist is a story of big political money, Democratic hubris in the Obama years and a partisan chasm that grew over nine years like a crack in the Antarctic shelf, favoring extreme positions and uncompromising rhetoric over cooperation and conciliation.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+G.O.P.+Leaders+Came+to+View+Climate+Change+as+Fake+Science&rft.date=2017-06-03&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Davenport&rft.aufirst=Coral&rft.au=Lipton%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F06%2F03%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Frepublican-leaders-climate-change.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-nyt20110227-291" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-nyt20110227_291-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFWarner2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Warner" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Judith Warner">Warner, Judith</a> (27 February 2011). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/magazine/27FOB-WWLN-t.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Fact-Free Science"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Magazine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The New York Times Magazine">The New York Times Magazine</a></i>. pp. 11–12. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210705083022/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/magazine/27FOB-WWLN-t.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">9 September</span> 2017</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">It would be easier to believe in this great moment of scientific reawakening, of course, if more than half of the Republicans in the House and three-quarters of Republican senators did not now say that the threat of global warming, as a human-made and highly threatening phenomenon, is at best an exaggeration and at worst an utter "hoax", as James Inhofe of Oklahoma, the ranking Republican on the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee, once put it. These grim numbers, compiled by the Center for American Progress, describe a troubling new reality: the rise of the Tea Party and its anti-intellectual, anti-establishment, anti-elite worldview has brought both a mainstreaming and a radicalization of anti-scientific thought.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times+Magazine&rft.atitle=Fact-Free+Science&rft.pages=11-12&rft.date=2011-02-27&rft.aulast=Warner&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F02%2F27%2Fmagazine%2F27FOB-WWLN-t.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-msnbc20140512-292" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-msnbc20140512_292-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMatthews2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Matthews" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chris Matthews">Matthews, Chris</a> (12 May 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/MSNBCW_20140512_230000_Hardball_With_Chris_Matthews" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Hardball With Chris Matthews for May 12, 2014"</a>. <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardball_With_Chris_Matthews" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hardball With Chris Matthews">Hardball With Chris Matthews</a></i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSNBC" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC_news" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="NBC news">NBC news</a>– via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">According to a survey by the Center for American Progress' Action Fund, more than 55 percent of congressional Republicans are climate change deniers. And it gets worse from there. They found that 77 percent of Republicans on the House Science Committee say they don't believe it in either. And that number balloons to an astounding 90 percent for all the party's leadership in Congress.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hardball+With+Chris+Matthews&rft.atitle=Hardball+With+Chris+Matthews+for+May+12%2C+2014&rft.date=2014-05-12&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FMSNBCW_20140512_230000_Hardball_With_Chris_Matthews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-293" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-293" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFEarthTalk2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">EarthTalk (22 December 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-does-climate-denial-persist/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How Does Climate Denial Persist?"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210322100618/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-does-climate-denial-persist/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">25 September</span> 2017</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">a recent survey by the non-profit Center for American Progress found that some 58 percent of Republicans in the U.S. Congress still 'refuse to accept climate change.'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span></q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=How+Does+Climate+Denial+Persist%3F&rft.date=2014-12-22&rft.au=EarthTalk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fhow-does-climate-denial-persist%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-294" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-294" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFKliegman2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kliegman, Julie (18 May 2014). <a class="external text" href="http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2014/may/18/jerry-brown/jerry-brown-says-virtually-no-republican-believes-/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Jerry Brown says 'virtually no Republican' in Washington accepts climate change science"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tampa Bay Times">Tampa Bay Times</a></i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PolitiFact" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170813152353/http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2014/may/18/jerry-brown/jerry-brown-says-virtually-no-republican-believes-/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">18 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tampa+Bay+Times&rft.atitle=Jerry+Brown+says+%27virtually+no+Republican%27+in+Washington+accepts+climate+change+science&rft.date=2014-05-18&rft.aulast=Kliegman&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.politifact.com%2Ftruth-o-meter%2Fstatements%2F2014%2Fmay%2F18%2Fjerry-brown%2Fjerry-brown-says-virtually-no-republican-believes-%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-295" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-295" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMcCarthy2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">McCarthy, Tom (17 November 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/nov/17/climate-change-denial-scepticism-republicans-congress" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Meet the Republicans in Congress who don't believe climate change is real"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170919234320/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/nov/17/climate-change-denial-scepticism-republicans-congress" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">18 September</span> 2017</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">It's much easier to list Republicans in Congress who think climate change is real than it is to list Republicans who don't, because there are so few members of the former group. Earlier this year, Politifact went looking for congressional Republicans who had not expressed scepticism about climate change and came up with a list of eight (out of 278).</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Meet+the+Republicans+in+Congress+who+don%27t+believe+climate+change+is+real&rft.date=2014-11-17&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2014%2Fnov%2F17%2Fclimate-change-denial-scepticism-republicans-congress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-NYT-296" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NYT_296-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFRevkin2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Revkin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Andrew Revkin">Revkin, Andrew</a> (8 June 2005). <a class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0DE1D71338F93BA35755C0A9639C8B63" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Bush Aide Edited Climate Reports"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170923002103/https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0DE1D71338F93BA35755C0A9639C8B63" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">3 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Bush+Aide+Edited+Climate+Reports&rft.date=2005-06-08&rft.aulast=Revkin&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9E0DE1D71338F93BA35755C0A9639C8B63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-297" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-297" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFRevkin2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Revkin, Andrew (10 June 2005). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/10/politics/11cooney.long.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Editor of Climate Report Resigns"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130514153207/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/10/politics/11cooney.long.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">23 April</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Editor+of+Climate+Report+Resigns&rft.date=2005-06-10&rft.aulast=Revkin&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F06%2F10%2Fpolitics%2F11cooney.long.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-298" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-298" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFRevkin2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Revkin, Andrew (15 June 2005). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/15/politics/former-bush-aide-who-edited-reports-is-hired-by-exxon.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Former Bush Aide Who Edited Reports Is Hired by Exxon"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210322005342/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/15/politics/former-bush-aide-who-edited-reports-is-hired-by-exxon.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Former+Bush+Aide+Who+Edited+Reports+Is+Hired+by+Exxon&rft.date=2005-06-15&rft.aulast=Revkin&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F06%2F15%2Fpolitics%2Fformer-bush-aide-who-edited-reports-is-hired-by-exxon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-299" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-299" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/19/energy-sec-rick-perry-says-co2-is-not-the-main-driver-of-climate-change.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Energy Secty Rick Perry: CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> is not the main driver of climate change"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNBC" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CNBC">CNBC</a></i>. 19 June 2017. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200901145538/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/19/energy-sec-rick-perry-says-co2-is-not-the-main-driver-of-climate-change.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">9 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNBC&rft.atitle=Energy+Secty+Rick+Perry%3A+CO%3Csub+style%3D%22font-size%3A+80%25%3Bvertical-align%3A+-0.35em%22%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+is+not+the+main+driver+of+climate+change&rft.date=2017-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2017%2F06%2F19%2Fenergy-sec-rick-perry-says-co2-is-not-the-main-driver-of-climate-change.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-300" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-300" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFSeitter" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Seitter, Keith. <a class="external text" href="https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/index.cfm/about-ams/ams-position-letters/letter-to-doe-secretary-perry-on-climate-change/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"AMS Letter to Perry"</a>. American Meteorological Society. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201210194452/https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/index.cfm/about-ams/ams-position-letters/letter-to-doe-secretary-perry-on-climate-change/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">24 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AMS+Letter+to+Perry&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.aulast=Seitter&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ametsoc.org%2Fams%2Findex.cfm%2Fabout-ams%2Fams-position-letters%2Fletter-to-doe-secretary-perry-on-climate-change%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-301" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-301" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFFrej2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Frej, Willa (18 May 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/trump-nasa-jim-bridenstine-climate-change_us_5afe9b49e4b0a046186a4f3b" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Trump's NASA Chief Has Apparently Changed His Tune On Climate Change"</a>. <i>Huffington Post</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211119135047/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/trump-nasa-jim-bridenstine-climate-change_n_5afe9b49e4b0a046186a4f3b" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">18 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=Trump%27s+NASA+Chief+Has+Apparently+Changed+His+Tune+On+Climate+Change&rft.date=2018-05-18&rft.aulast=Frej&rft.aufirst=Willa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fentry%2Ftrump-nasa-jim-bridenstine-climate-change_us_5afe9b49e4b0a046186a4f3b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-302" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-302" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFKoren2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Koren, Marina (17 May 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/05/trump-nasa-climate-change-bridenstine/560642/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Trump's NASA Chief: 'I Fully Believe and Know the Climate Is Changing'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180518011709/https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/05/trump-nasa-climate-change-bridenstine/560642/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span>2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Trump%27s+NASA+Chief%3A+%27I+Fully+Believe+and+Know+the+Climate+Is+Changing%27&rft.date=2018-05-17&rft.aulast=Koren&rft.aufirst=Marina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fscience%2Farchive%2F2018%2F05%2Ftrump-nasa-climate-change-bridenstine%2F560642%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-303" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-303" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFRoberts2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Roberts, David (26 April 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/4/26/18512213/climate-change-republicans-conservatives" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Don't bother waiting for conservatives to come around on climate change"</a>. <i>Vox</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211015134352/https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/4/26/18512213/climate-change-republicans-conservatives" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 15 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Don%27t+bother+waiting+for+conservatives+to+come+around+on+climate+change&rft.date=2019-04-26&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fenergy-and-environment%2F2019%2F4%2F26%2F18512213%2Fclimate-change-republicans-conservatives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-304" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-304" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFCrist2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Crist, Meehan (10 February 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/02/the-new-rhetoric-of-climate-denial/516198/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How the New Climate Denial Is Like the Old Climate Denial"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190624053510/https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/02/the-new-rhetoric-of-climate-denial/516198/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=How+the+New+Climate+Denial+Is+Like+the+Old+Climate+Denial&rft.date=2017-02-10&rft.aulast=Crist&rft.aufirst=Meehan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fscience%2Farchive%2F2017%2F02%2Fthe-new-rhetoric-of-climate-denial%2F516198%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-305" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-305" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.mediamatters.org/new-york-times/why-news-outlets-only-sometimes-push-back-against-climate-denial" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Why News Outlets Only Sometimes Push Back Against Climate Denial"</a>. <i>Media Matters for America</i>. 16 March 2017. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601180610/https://www.mediamatters.org/new-york-times/why-news-outlets-only-sometimes-push-back-against-climate-denial" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Media+Matters+for+America&rft.atitle=Why+News+Outlets+Only+Sometimes+Push+Back+Against+Climate+Denial&rft.date=2017-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mediamatters.org%2Fnew-york-times%2Fwhy-news-outlets-only-sometimes-push-back-against-climate-denial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-NYTHeartland-306" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NYTHeartland_306-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFJustin_GillisLeslie_Kaufman2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Justin Gillis; Leslie Kaufman (15 February 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/16/science/earth/in-heartland-institute-leak-a-plan-to-discredit-climate-teaching.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Leak Offers Glimpse of Campaign Against Climate Science"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190402143045/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/16/science/earth/in-heartland-institute-leak-a-plan-to-discredit-climate-teaching.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 February</span> 2012</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">plans to promote a curriculum that would cast doubt on the scientific finding that fossil fuel emissions endanger the long-term welfare of the planet.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Leak+Offers+Glimpse+of+Campaign+Against+Climate+Science&rft.date=2012-02-15&rft.au=Justin+Gillis&rft.au=Leslie+Kaufman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F02%2F16%2Fscience%2Fearth%2Fin-heartland-institute-leak-a-plan-to-discredit-climate-teaching.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-307" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-307" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation magazine cs1" id="CITEREFStephanie_PappasLiveScience2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Stephanie Pappas; LiveScience (15 February 2012). <a class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=leaked-conservative-group" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Leaked: Conservative Group Plans Anti-Climate Education Program"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216082938/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=leaked-conservative-group" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">15 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Leaked%3A+Conservative+Group+Plans+Anti-Climate+Education+Program&rft.date=2012-02-15&rft.au=Stephanie+Pappas&rft.au=LiveScience&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dleaked-conservative-group&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-308" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-308" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGoldenberg2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Goldenberg, Suzanne (15 February 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/feb/15/heartland-institute-fraud-leak-climate?guni=Article:in%20body%20link" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Heartland Institute claims fraud after leak of climate change documents"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404224601/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/feb/15/heartland-institute-fraud-leak-climate?guni=Article:in" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">23 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Heartland+Institute+claims+fraud+after+leak+of+climate+change+documents&rft.date=2012-02-15&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2012%2Ffeb%2F15%2Fheartland-institute-fraud-leak-climate%3Fguni%3DArticle%3Ain%2520body%2520link&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-NCSE_Branch_6/5/2017-309" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSE_Branch_6/5/2017_309-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSE_Branch_6/5/2017_309-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFBranch2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Branch, Glenn (5 June 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://ncse.com/blog/2017/06/heartbreak-heartland-continues-0018546" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Heartbreak for Heartland Continues"</a>. <i>NCSE</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404200210/https://ncse.com/blog/2017/06/heartbreak-heartland-continues-0018546" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NCSE&rft.atitle=The+Heartbreak+for+Heartland+Continues&rft.date=2017-06-05&rft.aulast=Branch&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fncse.com%2Fblog%2F2017%2F06%2Fheartbreak-heartland-continues-0018546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-NCSE_Classroom_2017-310" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-NCSE_Classroom_2017_310-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://ncse.com/classroom-resources" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Classroom Resources"</a>. <i>NCSE</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190515042234/https://ncse.com/classroom-resources" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NCSE&rft.atitle=Classroom+Resources&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fncse.com%2Fclassroom-resources&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Climate_Feedback_2017-311" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Climate_Feedback_2017_311-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://climatefeedback.org/report-heartland-institute-sent-to-influence-us-teachers-on-climate-change-earns-an-f-from-scientists/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Report Heartland Institute sent to influence US teachers on climate change earns an "F" from scientists"</a>. <i>ClimateFeedback.org</i>. 31 May 2017. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210904175958/https://climatefeedback.org/report-heartland-institute-sent-to-influence-us-teachers-on-climate-change-earns-an-f-from-scientists/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ClimateFeedback.org&rft.atitle=Report+Heartland+Institute+sent+to+influence+US+teachers+on+climate+change+earns+an+%22F%22+from+scientists&rft.date=2017-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclimatefeedback.org%2Freport-heartland-institute-sent-to-influence-us-teachers-on-climate-change-earns-an-f-from-scientists%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-312" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-312" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFLever-Tracy2010" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Lever-Tracy 2010</a>, p. 255: "In sum, we see that manufacturing uncertainty over climate change is the fundamental strategy of the denial machine ... As we reflect on the evolution of climate science and policy-making over the past few decades, we believe the denial machine has achieved considerable success—especially in the US but internationally as well. Public concern over global warming and support for climate policy-making in the US is low relative to other nations (see Chapter 10, this volume), contributing to inaction by the US government.</span></li><li id="cite_note-CorcoranCoolDown-313" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-CorcoranCoolDown_313-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-CorcoranCoolDown_313-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFCorcoran2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Corcoran, Terence (6 January 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20110101080128/http://www.nationalpost.com/opinion/columnists/story.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The cool down in climate polls"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Post" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Financial Post">Financial Post</a></i>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://nationalpost.com/opinion/columnists/story.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 1 January 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">27 January</span> 2019</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Angus Reid surveyed people ...before and after [the] <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COP15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="COP15">Copenhagen [summit]</a>. The drop off in public support for the idea that global warming is a fact mostly caused by human activity looks most pronounced in Canada. In November, 63% of Canadians supported global warming as a human-made phenomenon. By 23 Dec, that support had fallen 52% ... A similar trend has been noted in the United States, where confidence in global warming theory has dropped to 46% ... down from 51% in July last year. In Britain, only 43% believe human-made global warming is a fact, down from ... 55% in July. In all three countries, there are signs of growing skepticism.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Post&rft.atitle=The+cool+down+in+climate+polls&rft.date=2010-01-06&rft.aulast=Corcoran&rft.aufirst=Terence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnationalpost.com%2Fopinion%2Fcolumnists%2Fstory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-314" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-314" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFWhite2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">White, Rob (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NgzIl7LvUVIC&pg=PA48" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Change from a Criminological Perspective</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3640-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3640-9"><bdi>978-1-4614-3640-9</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601191634/https://books.google.com/books?id=NgzIl7LvUVIC&pg=PA48" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">4 July</span> 2015</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">belief that climate change is 'real' and confidence in climate science has surprisingly decreased ... Angus Reid polls conducted in December 2009 found declining support for climate change ... in Britain, Canada, and the United States.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+from+a+Criminological+Perspective&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-3640-9&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNgzIl7LvUVIC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-RasmussenPoll-315" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-RasmussenPoll_315-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-RasmussenPoll_315-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/current_events/environment_energy/americans_skeptical_of_science_behind_global_warming" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Americans Skeptical of Science Behind Global Warming"</a>. Rasmussen Reports. 3 December 2009. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190326113952/http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/current_events/environment_energy/americans_skeptical_of_science_behind_global_warming" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">11 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Americans+Skeptical+of+Science+Behind+Global+Warming&rft.pub=Rasmussen+Reports&rft.date=2009-12-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rasmussenreports.com%2Fpublic_content%2Fpolitics%2Fcurrent_events%2Fenvironment_energy%2Famericans_skeptical_of_science_behind_global_warming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-RasmussenMediaHype-316" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-RasmussenMediaHype_316-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/current_events/environment_energy/54_say_media_hype_global_warming_dangers" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"54% Say Media Hype Global Warming Dangers"</a>. Rasmussen Reports. 6 February 2009. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110011221/https://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/current_events/environment_energy/54_say_media_hype_global_warming_dangers" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">11 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=54%25+Say+Media+Hype+Global+Warming+Dangers&rft.pub=Rasmussen+Reports&rft.date=2009-02-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rasmussenreports.com%2Fpublic_content%2Fpolitics%2Fcurrent_events%2Fenvironment_energy%2F54_say_media_hype_global_warming_dangers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-317" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-317" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFAntilla2005" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Antilla 2005</a>: "the popular press uses a number of methods to frame climate science as uncertain, including 'through the practice of interjecting and emphasizing controversy or disagreement among scientists' ... In order to provide balance while reporting on climate change, some journalists include rebuttals by <i>experts</i> who, often through think-tanks, are affiliated with the fossil fuel industry. Regrettably, this creates the impression that scientific opinion is evenly divided or completely unsettled"</span></li><li id="cite_note-318" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-318" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBegley2007" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Begley 2007</a>: "polls found that 64 percent of Americans thought there was 'a lot' of scientific disagreement on climate change; only one third thought planetary warming was "mainly caused by things people do." In contrast, majorities in Europe and Japan recognize a broad consensus among climate experts"</span></li><li id="cite_note-319" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-319" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#CITEREFBegley2007" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Begley 2007</a>: "A new Newsweek Poll finds that the influence of the denial machine remains strong. Although the figure is less than in earlier polls, 39 percent of those asked say there is "a lot of disagreement among climate scientists" on the basic question of whether the planet is warming; 42 percent say there is a lot of disagreement that human activities are a major cause of global warming. Only 46 percent say the greenhouse effect is being felt today."</span></li><li id="cite_note-320" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-320" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFHolt2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Holt, Rush (13 July 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1230884" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Trying to Get Us to Change Course" (film review.)"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>317</b> (5835): 198–199. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1142810" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1126/science.1142810</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160406179" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">160406179</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602000836/https://zenodo.org/record/1230884" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 2 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">29 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Trying+to+Get+Us+to+Change+Course%22+%28film+review.%29&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=5835&rft.pages=198-199&rft.date=2007-07-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1142810&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160406179%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Rush&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1230884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Foster-321" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-Foster_321-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFFoster2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Foster, Craig (2018). "Flat-Earth Anxieties Reflect Misplaced Priorities". <i>Skeptical Inquirer</i>. <b>42</b> (3): 10–11.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Flat-Earth+Anxieties+Reflect+Misplaced+Priorities&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=10-11&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-322" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-322" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGraham_Redfearn2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Graham Redfearn (7 January 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/planet-oz/2016/jan/07/era-of-climate-science-denial-is-not-over-study-finds" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Era of climate science denial is not over, study finds"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814232317/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/planet-oz/2016/jan/07/era-of-climate-science-denial-is-not-over-study-finds" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">20 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Era+of+climate+science+denial+is+not+over%2C+study+finds&rft.date=2016-01-07&rft.au=Graham+Redfearn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fplanet-oz%2F2016%2Fjan%2F07%2Fera-of-climate-science-denial-is-not-over-study-finds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-323" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-323" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.uwosh.edu/es/climate-change/oil-company-positions-on-the-reality-and-risk-of-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Oil Company Positions on the Reality and Risk of Climate Change"</a>. <i>Environmental Studies</i>. University of Oshkosh—Wisconsin. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160416075908/http://www.uwosh.edu/es/climate-change/oil-company-positions-on-the-reality-and-risk-of-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">27 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Studies&rft.atitle=Oil+Company+Positions+on+the+Reality+and+Risk+of+Climate+Change&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwosh.edu%2Fes%2Fclimate-change%2Foil-company-positions-on-the-reality-and-risk-of-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-324" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-324" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFLaville2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Laville, Sandra (22 March 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/mar/22/top-oil-firms-spending-millions-lobbying-to-block-climate-change-policies-says-report" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Top oil firms spending millions lobbying to block climate change policies, says report"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0261-3077</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190322003134/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/mar/22/top-oil-firms-spending-millions-lobbying-to-block-climate-change-policies-says-report" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">25 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Top+oil+firms+spending+millions+lobbying+to+block+climate+change+policies%2C+says+report&rft.date=2019-03-22&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Laville&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbusiness%2F2019%2Fmar%2F22%2Ftop-oil-firms-spending-millions-lobbying-to-block-climate-change-policies-says-report&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-325" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial#cite_ref-325" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFBoslough2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Boslough" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mark Boslough">Boslough, Mark</a> (20 October 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/an_interview_with_csicon_speaker_michael_mann" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"An Interview with CSICon Speaker Michael Mann"</a>. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181116110456/https://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/an_interview_with_csicon_speaker_michael_mann" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">25 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+real+reason+scientists+downplay+the+risks+of+climate+change&rft.date=2019-10-25&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Jamieson&rft.aufirst=Dale&rft.au=Oppenheimer%2C+Michael&rft.au=Oreskes%2C+Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2019%2Foct%2F25%2Fthe-real-reason-some-scientists-downplay-the-risks-of-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></span></li></ol></div></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span></h2><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="column-count: 2; font-size: 12.6px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAntilla2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Antilla, Liisa (2005). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Committee+for+Skeptical+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Deniers+are+not+Skeptics&rft.date=2014-12-05&rft.aulast=Boslough&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fnews%2Fshow%2Fdeniers_are_not_skeptics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFBrown1996" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Brown, R. G. E. Jr. (23 October 1996). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926222320/http://democrats.science.house.gov/Media/File/Reports/environment_science_report_23oct96.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Environmental science under siege: Fringe science and the 104th Congress, U. S. House of Representatives"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Report, Democratic Caucus of the Committee on Science</i>. Washington, D.C.: U. S. House of Representatives. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://democrats.science.house.gov/Media/File/Reports/environment_science_report_23oct96.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> on 26 September 2007.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Report%2C+Democratic+Caucus+of+the+Committee+on+Science&rft.atitle=Environmental+science+under+siege%3A+Fringe+science+and+the+104th+Congress%2C+U.+S.+House+of+Representatives.&rft.date=1996-10-23&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=R.+G.+E.+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdemocrats.science.house.gov%2FMedia%2FFile%2FReports%2Fenvironment_science_report_23oct96.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFCBC_News:_the_fifth_estate2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">CBC News: the fifth estate (2007). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070312023300/http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/denialmachine/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Denial Machine"</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/denialmachine/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 12 March 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">29 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Denial+Machine&rft.date=2007&rft.au=CBC+News%3A+the+fifth+estate&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Ffifth%2Fdenialmachine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFConwayOreskes2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Conway, Erik; Oreskes, Naomi (2010). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/merchantsofdoubt00ores" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming</i></a></span>. US: Bloomsbury. p. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/merchantsofdoubt00ores/page/170" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">170</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59691-610-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59691-610-4"><bdi>978-1-59691-610-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merchants+of+Doubt%3A+How+a+Handful+of+Scientists+Obscured+the+Truth+on+Issues+from+Tobacco+Smoke+to+Global+Warming&rft.place=US&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59691-610-4&rft.aulast=Conway&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft.au=Oreskes%2C+Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmerchantsofdoubt00ores&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDiethelmMcKee2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Diethelm, Pascal; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_McKee" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Martin McKee">McKee, Martin</a> (January 2009). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Feurpub%2Fckn139" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Denialism: what is it and how should scientists respond?"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Journal_of_Public_Health" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="European Journal of Public Health">European Journal of Public Health</a></i>. <b>19</b> (1): 2–4. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Feurpub%2Fckn139" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1093/eurpub/ckn139</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19158101" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">19158101</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Denialism%3A+what+is+it+and+how+should+scientists+respond%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-4&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Feurpub%2Fckn139&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19158101&rft.aulast=Diethelm&rft.aufirst=Pascal&rft.au=McKee%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Feurpub%252Fckn139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFDunlapMcCright2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dunlap, Riley E; McCright, Aaron M. (2011). <i>Climate Change Denial: Sources, actors, and strategies</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-54478-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-54478-8"><bdi>978-0-415-54478-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+Denial%3A+Sources%2C+actors%2C+and+strategies&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-415-54478-8&rft.aulast=Dunlap&rft.aufirst=Riley+E&rft.au=McCright%2C+Aaron+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDunlap2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dunlap, Riley E. (2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274306932" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Change Skepticism and Denial: An Introduction"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Behavioral_Scientist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Behavioral Scientist">American Behavioral Scientist</a></i>. <b>57</b> (6): 691–698. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002764213477097" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0002764213477097</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147126996" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">147126996</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110021148/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274306932_Climate_Change_Skepticism_and_Denial_An_Introduction" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">27 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Behavioral+Scientist&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+Skepticism+and+Denial%3A+An+Introduction&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=691-698&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0002764213477097&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147126996%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dunlap&rft.aufirst=Riley+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F274306932&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFDunlapMcCright2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dunlap, Riley E.; McCright, Aaron M. (2011). "Organised Climate Change Denial". In Dryzek, John S.; Norgaard, Richard B.; Schlosberg, David (eds.). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JihhbdpO-yoC&pg=PA153" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 153. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956660-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956660-0"><bdi>978-0-19-956660-0</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601181558/https://books.google.com/books?id=JihhbdpO-yoC&pg=PA153" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">6 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Organised+Climate+Change+Denial&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Climate+Change+and+Society&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956660-0&rft.aulast=Dunlap&rft.aufirst=Riley+E.&rft.au=McCright%2C+Aaron+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJihhbdpO-yoC%26pg%3DPA153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDunlapJacques2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dunlap, R. E.; Jacques, P. J. (2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3787818" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Change Denial Books and Conservative Think Tanks: Exploring the Connection"</a>. <i>American Behavioral Scientist</i>. <b>57</b> (6): 699–731. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002764213477096" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0002764213477096</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3787818" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3787818</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24098056" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">24098056</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Behavioral+Scientist&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+Denial+Books+and+Conservative+Think+Tanks%3A+Exploring+the+Connection&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=699-731&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3787818%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24098056&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0002764213477096&rft.aulast=Dunlap&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rft.au=Jacques%2C+P.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3787818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation magazine cs1" id="CITEREFGelbspan1995" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Gelbspan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ross Gelbspan">Gelbspan, Ross</a> (December 1995). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307042257/http://www.sorryaboutthat.net/gelbspan.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The heat is on: The warming of the world's climate sparks a blaze of denial"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper%27s_Magazine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Harper's Magazine">Harper's Magazine</a></i>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.sorryaboutthat.net/gelbspan.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 7 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harper%27s+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+heat+is+on%3A+The+warming+of+the+world%27s+climate+sparks+a+blaze+of+denial&rft.date=1995-12&rft.aulast=Gelbspan&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sorryaboutthat.net%2Fgelbspan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFGelbspan1997" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Gelbspan, Ross (1997). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/heatisonhighstak00gelb" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Heat is on: The High Stakes Battle Over Earth's Threatened Climate</i></a></span>. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-13295-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-13295-3"><bdi>978-0-201-13295-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Heat+is+on%3A+The+High+Stakes+Battle+Over+Earth%27s+Threatened+Climate&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-201-13295-3&rft.aulast=Gelbspan&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fheatisonhighstak00gelb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFGelbspan1998" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Gelbspan, Ross (1998). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/heatisonclim00gelb" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The heat is on : the climate crisis, the cover-up, the prescription</i></a>. Reading, MA: Perseus Books. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0025-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0025-5"><bdi>978-0-7382-0025-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+heat+is+on+%3A+the+climate+crisis%2C+the+cover-up%2C+the+prescription&rft.place=Reading%2C+MA&rft.pub=Perseus+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0025-5&rft.aulast=Gelbspan&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fheatisonclim00gelb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFHamilton2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive_Hamilton" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Clive Hamilton">Hamilton, Clive</a> (2011). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdDTUvcFE1YC&pg=PT137" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Requiem for a Species: Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change</i></a>. Routledge. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84977-498-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84977-498-7"><bdi>978-1-84977-498-7</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210323031809/https://books.google.com/books?id=BdDTUvcFE1YC&pg=PT137" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 March</span>2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Requiem+for+a+Species%3A+Why+We+Resist+the+Truth+about+Climate+Change&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84977-498-7&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Clive&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBdDTUvcFE1YC%26pg%3DPT137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFJacquesDunlapFreeman2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Jacques, P.J.; Dunlap, Riley E.; Freeman, M. (2008). "The organisation of denial: Conservative think tanks and environmental scepticism". <i>Environmental Politics</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 349–385. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09644010802055576" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1080/09644010802055576</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144975102" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">144975102</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Politics&rft.atitle=The+organisation+of+denial%3A+Conservative+think+tanks+and+environmental+scepticism&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=349-385&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09644010802055576&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144975102%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jacques&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft.au=Dunlap%2C+Riley+E.&rft.au=Freeman%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFJenkins2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Jenkins, Stephen H. (2015). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LkzTBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA229" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Tools for Critical Thinking in Biology</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 229, 243. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-998104-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-998104-5"><bdi>978-0-19-998104-5</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210322183523/https://books.google.com/books?id=LkzTBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA229" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">16 March</span>2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tools+for+Critical+Thinking+in+Biology&rft.pages=229%2C+243&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-998104-5&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Stephen+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLkzTBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFKempMilneReay2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kemp, Jeremy; Milne, Richard; Reay, Dave S. (2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/42833922" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Sceptics and deniers of climate change not to be confused"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>464</b> (7289): 673. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.464..673K" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2010Natur.464..673K</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F464673a" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/464673a</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20360714" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20360714</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110021214/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/42833922_Sceptics_and_deniers_of_climate_change_not_to_be_confused" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Sceptics+and+deniers+of+climate+change+not+to+be+confused&rft.volume=464&rft.issue=7289&rft.pages=673&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20360714&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F464673a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Natur.464..673K&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft.au=Milne%2C+Richard&rft.au=Reay%2C+Dave+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F42833922&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFLever-Tracy2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lever-Tracy, Constance (2010). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XfTISxCa6SwC" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Routledge Handbook of Climate Change and Society</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-87621-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-87621-3"><bdi>978-0-203-87621-3</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160506182513/https://books.google.com/books?id=XfTISxCa6SwC&printsec=frontcover" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">12 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+Climate+Change+and+Society&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-203-87621-3&rft.aulast=Lever-Tracy&rft.aufirst=Constance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXfTISxCa6SwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFMooney2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Mooney, Chris (2005). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D3-SAlY8MYcC" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Republican war on science</i></a>. New York: Basic Books. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04675-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04675-1"><bdi>978-0-465-04675-1</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211103191339/https://books.google.com/books?id=D3-SAlY8MYcC" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">4 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Republican+war+on+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-465-04675-1&rft.aulast=Mooney&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD3-SAlY8MYcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Center_for_Science_Education2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Center for Science Education (15 January 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://ncse.ngo/why-it-called-denial" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Why Is It Called Denial?"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Science_Education" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Center for Science Education">National Center for Science Education</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221207055409/https://ncse.ngo/why-it-called-denial" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 7 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">17 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Is+It+Called+Denial%3F&rft.pub=National+Center+for+Science+Education&rft.date=2016-01-15&rft.au=National+Center+for+Science+Education&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fncse.ngo%2Fwhy-it-called-denial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFNerlich2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Nerlich, Brigitte (2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2521175" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"<span class="cs1-kern-left" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"></span>'Climategate': Paradoxical Metaphors and Political Paralysis"</a>. <i>Environmental Values</i>. <b>19</b> (4): 419–442. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3197%2F096327110x531543" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.3197/096327110x531543</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145473725" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">145473725</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110162632/https://www.academia.edu/2521175" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">4 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Values&rft.atitle=%27Climategate%27%3A+Paradoxical+Metaphors+and+Political+Paralysis&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=419-442&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3197%2F096327110x531543&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145473725%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nerlich&rft.aufirst=Brigitte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2521175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFOrlóci2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Orlóci, L. (2008). <a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250008746" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Vegetation displacement issues and transition statistics in climate warming cycle"</a>. <i>Community Ecology</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 83–98. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1556%2Fcomec.9.2008.1.10" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1556/comec.9.2008.1.10</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110021214/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250008746_Vegetation_displacement_issues_and_transition_statistics_in_climate_warming_cycle" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">29 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Community+Ecology&rft.atitle=Vegetation+displacement+issues+and+transition+statistics+in+climate+warming+cycle&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-98&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1556%2Fcomec.9.2008.1.10&rft.aulast=Orl%C3%B3ci&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F250008746&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFPainterAshe2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Painter, James; Ashe, Teresa (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F7%2F4%2F044005" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Cross-national comparison of the presence of climate scepticism in the print media in six countries, 2007"</a>. <i>Environ. Res. Lett</i>. <b>7</b> (4): 044005. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ERL.....7d4005P" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2012ERL.....7d4005P</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F7%2F4%2F044005" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/044005</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environ.+Res.+Lett.&rft.atitle=Cross-national+comparison+of+the+presence+of+climate+scepticism+in+the+print+media+in+six+countries%2C+2007&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=044005&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F7%2F4%2F044005&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012ERL.....7d4005P&rft.aulast=Painter&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Ashe%2C+Teresa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1748-9326%252F7%252F4%252F044005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFPowell2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_L._Powell" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="James L. Powell">Powell, James Lawrence</a> (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5SU7utP8PIMC&pg=PA172" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Inquisition of Climate Science</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-15719-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-15719-3"><bdi>978-0-231-15719-3</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210601181536/https://books.google.com/books?id=5SU7utP8PIMC&pg=PA172" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">12 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Inquisition+of+Climate+Science&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-231-15719-3&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=James+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5SU7utP8PIMC%26pg%3DPA172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFRennie2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Rennie, John (30 November 2009). <a class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/seven-answers-to-climate-contrarian-nonsense/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Seven Answers to Climate Contrarian Nonsense"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019175058/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/seven-answers-to-climate-contrarian-nonsense/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">7 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Seven+Answers+to+Climate+Contrarian+Nonsense&rft.date=2009-11-30&rft.aulast=Rennie&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fseven-answers-to-climate-contrarian-nonsense%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFTimmer2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Timmer, John (16 December 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/staff/2014/12/skeptics-deniers-and-contrarians-the-climate-science-label-game/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Skeptics, deniers, and contrarians: The climate science label game"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Technica" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ars Technica">Ars Technica</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171002055845/https://arstechnica.com/staff/2014/12/skeptics-deniers-and-contrarians-the-climate-science-label-game/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">14 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Skeptics%2C+deniers%2C+and+contrarians%3A+The+climate+science+label+game&rft.date=2014-12-16&rft.aulast=Timmer&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fstaff%2F2014%2F12%2Fskeptics-deniers-and-contrarians-the-climate-science-label-game%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFVaidyanathan2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Vaidyanathan, Gayathri (2014). <a class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-have-climate-scientists-learned-from-20-year-fight-with-deniers/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"What Have Climate Scientists Learned from 20-Year Fight with Deniers?"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210820232244/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-have-climate-scientists-learned-from-20-year-fight-with-deniers/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 20 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">23 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=What+Have+Climate+Scientists+Learned+from+20-Year+Fight+with+Deniers%3F&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Vaidyanathan&rft.aufirst=Gayathri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-have-climate-scientists-learned-from-20-year-fight-with-deniers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFWashington2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Washington, Haydn (2013). <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_Change_Denial:_Heads_in_the_Sand" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand"><i>Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand</i></a>. Routledge. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-53004-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-53004-3"><bdi>978-1-136-53004-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+Denial%3A+Heads+in+the+Sand&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-53004-3&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Haydn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFWeart2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_R._Weart" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Spencer R. Weart">Weart, Spencer R.</a> (July 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history/climate/Revelle.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Roger Revelle's Discovery"</a>. <i>The Discovery of Global Warming</i>. American Institute of Physics. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629213525/https://www.aip.org/history/climate/Revelle.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 29 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">18 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Discovery+of+Global+Warming&rft.atitle=Roger+Revelle%27s+Discovery&rft.date=2007-07&rft.aulast=Weart&rft.aufirst=Spencer+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fhistory%2Fclimate%2FRevelle.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFWeart2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Weart, Spencer R. (February 2015). <a class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/climate/public2.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Public and Climate, cont"</a>. <i>The Discovery of Global Warming</i>. American Institute of Physics. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150210183643/http://www.aip.org/history/climate/public2.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">18 June</span>2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Discovery+of+Global+Warming&rft.atitle=The+Public+and+Climate%2C+cont.&rft.date=2015-02&rft.aulast=Weart&rft.aufirst=Spencer+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fhistory%2Fclimate%2Fpublic2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFWeart2015a" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Weart, Spencer R. (June 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history/climate/Govt.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Government: The View from Washington, DC"</a>. <i>The Discovery of Global Warming</i>. American Institute of Physics. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629213628/https://www.aip.org/history/climate/Govt.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">18 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Discovery+of+Global+Warming&rft.atitle=Government%3A+The+View+from+Washington%2C+DC&rft.date=2015-06&rft.aulast=Weart&rft.aufirst=Spencer+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fhistory%2Fclimate%2FGovt.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWeart2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Weart, Spencer (2011). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150610085845/http://www.staff.fcps.net/dgmartin/Global%20Warming%20-%20How%20Skepticism%20Became%20Denial.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Global warming: How skepticism became denial"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</i>. <b>67</b> (1): 41–50. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011BuAtS..67a..41W" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2011BuAtS..67a..41W</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0096340210392966" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0096340210392966</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53607015" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">53607015</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.staff.fcps.net/dgmartin/Global%20Warming%20-%20How%20Skepticism%20Became%20Denial.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> on 10 June 2015.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=Global+warming%3A+How+skepticism+became+denial&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-50&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53607015%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0096340210392966&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011BuAtS..67a..41W&rft.aulast=Weart&rft.aufirst=Spencer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.staff.fcps.net%2Fdgmartin%2FGlobal%2520Warming%2520-%2520How%2520Skepticism%2520Became%2520Denial.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li></ul></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; display: flow-root; float: right; font-size: 12.32px; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 4px 0px 4px 1em; width: 238px;"><div class="side-box-flex" style="align-items: center; display: flex;"><div class="side-box-image" style="padding: 2px 0px 2px 0.9em; text-align: center;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="355" data-file-width="300" decoding="async" height="40" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="34" /></span></div><div class="side-box-text plainlist" style="flex: 1 1 0%; padding: 0.25em 0.9em;">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a class="extiw" href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Climate_change_denial" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="q:Special:Search/Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></b></i>.</div></div></div><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; display: flow-root; float: right; font-size: 12.32px; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 4px 0px 4px 1em; width: 238px;"><div class="side-box-flex" style="align-items: center; display: flex;"><div class="side-box-image" style="padding: 2px 0px 2px 0.9em; text-align: center;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1376" data-file-width="1024" decoding="async" height="40" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="30" /></span></div><div class="side-box-text plainlist" style="flex: 1 1 0%; padding: 0.25em 0.9em;">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><a class="extiw" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Climate_change_denial" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="commons:Category:Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></span>.</div></div></div><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Kathy Mulvey (January 2017). "<a class="external text" href="https://therealnews.com/kmulvey0112exxon" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Tillerson Refuses to Acknowledge ExxonMobil's Efforts to Deceive the Public on Climate Change</a>"</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Hausfather, Zeke (January 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://therealnews.com/zhausfather0109warming" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">No 'Pause' in Global Warming: Oceans Heating Up and Sea Levels Rising at Alarming Pace</a>. "Details the findings of a new report that confirms <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOAA" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> data about climate change."</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kaiser" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="David Kaiser">David Kaiser</a> and Lee Wasserman (December 2016). "<a class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/12/08/the-rockefeller-family-fund-vs-exxon/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Part 1</a>" and "<a class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/12/22/rockefeller-family-fund-takes-on-exxon-mobil/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Part 2</a>", <i>New York Review of Books</i></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/climate-of-doubt/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Frontline: Climate of Doubt"</a>. PBS. 23 October 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2012.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/publications/reports/dealing-in-doubt/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Dealing in Doubt: The climate denial industry and climate science – a brief history of attacks on climate science, climate scientists and the IPCC"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenpeace" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a>. 24 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">22 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dealing+in+Doubt%3A+The+climate+denial+industry+and+climate+science+%E2%80%93+a+brief+history+of+attacks+on+climate+science%2C+climate+scientists+and+the+IPCC&rft.pub=Greenpeace&rft.date=2010-03-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenpeace.org%2Finternational%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Freports%2Fdealing-in-doubt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Bowen_(writer)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mark Bowen (writer)">Bowen, Mark</a> (2008). <i>Censoring Science: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hansen" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="James Hansen">Dr. James Hansen</a> and the Truth of Global Warming</i>. Plume. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-452-28962-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-452-28962-8">978-0-452-28962-8</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMcCrightDunlap2003" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">McCright, Aaron M.; Dunlap, Riley E. (2003). <a class="external text" href="http://stephenschneider.stanford.edu/Publications/PDF_Papers/McCrightDunlap2003.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Defeating Kyoto: The Conservative Movement's Impact on U.S. Climate Change Policy"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 13.3px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Social Problems</i>. <b>50</b> (3): 348–373. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.189.3388" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1.1.189.3388</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fsp.2003.50.3.348" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1525/sp.2003.50.3.348</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Problems&rft.atitle=Defeating+Kyoto%3A+The+Conservative+Movement%27s+Impact+on+U.S.+Climate+Change+Policy&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=348-373&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.189.3388%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fsp.2003.50.3.348&rft.aulast=McCright&rft.aufirst=Aaron+M.&rft.au=Dunlap%2C+Riley+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstephenschneider.stanford.edu%2FPublications%2FPDF_Papers%2FMcCrightDunlap2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Shearer, Christine (2011). <a class="external text" href="https://www.haymarketbooks.org/books/375-kivalina" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Kivalina: A Climate Change Story"</a> Haymarket Books. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60846-128-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60846-128-8">978-1-60846-128-8</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Montlake, Simon (2019) <a class="external text" href="https://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/2019/0805/What-does-climate-change-have-to-do-with-socialism" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">What does climate change have to do with socialism</a> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Christian Science Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</a></i></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naomi_Oreskes" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Naomi Oreskes">Oreskes, Naomi</a>, "History Matters to Science: It helps to explain how cynical actors undermine the truth", <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, vol. 323, no. 6 (December 2020), p. 81. "In our 2010 book, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchants_of_Doubt" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Merchants of Doubt">Merchants of Doubt</a></i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_M._Conway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Erik M. Conway">Erik M. Conway</a> and I showed how the same arguments [as those used to cast doubt on the link between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> use and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_cancer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>] were used to delay action on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_hole" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ozone hole">ozone hole</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">climate change</a>—and this year [2020] we saw the spurious 'freedom' argument being used to disparage mask wearing [during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>]."</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFSupranOreskes2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Supran, Geoffrey; Oreskes, Naomi (18 November 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/18/the-forgotten-oil-ads-that-told-us-climate-change-was-nothing" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The forgotten oil ads that told us climate change was nothing"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211118171257/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/18/the-forgotten-oil-ads-that-told-us-climate-change-was-nothing" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 18 November 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+forgotten+oil+ads+that+told+us+climate+change+was+nothing&rft.date=2021-11-18&rft.aulast=Supran&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.au=Oreskes%2C+Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2021%2Fnov%2F18%2Fthe-forgotten-oil-ads-that-told-us-climate-change-was-nothing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+change+denial"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/21/climate-fight-is-undermined-by-social-medias-toxic-reports" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; 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direction: ltr; margin-left: 0px; padding: 0.75em 0px;"><ul id="footer-info" style="list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li id="footer-info-lastmod" style="font-size: 0.75em; line-height: 1.4; margin: 0px; padding: 0.5em 0px;">This page was last edited on 18 August 2023, at 02:22<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li></ul></footer></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-42672046916965214772023-08-19T06:01:00.000-07:002023-08-19T06:01:19.915-07:00Fact Checkers on Climate Change <p> </p><p><br /></p><p>Fact Checkers overwhelmingly indicate that Climate Change is no absurd scam but rather a growing reality in the world today...RS</p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=fact+-+check+climate+change&sca_esv=558381917&hl=en&biw=1920&bih=969&ei=zrTgZP3gN_Pj7_UPgtigsAU&ved=0ahUKEwj9_6j32-iAAxXz8bsIHQIsCFY4ChDh1QMIDw&oq=fact+-+check+climate+change&gs_lp=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&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Fact Checkers on Climate Change...Google Listing</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgxsNGUKfBqYhIsgSMwGX9OQtWEtRUlu_xBSSzoTpc3y1LxATWz-Zu8jYEHaKE6D1-XbVsXBS9U9WYFirC9pr86klfzuEIv57aAcpjJO0Dq2WJJMXDbq2ps-97YfwE_Ejcua9_jBpSOEXx5qYdyuQ7FYtXxeNZgyABh_OMuQrqeOJySqL1iU3ZK7q5yJSg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="366" data-original-width="610" height="192" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgxsNGUKfBqYhIsgSMwGX9OQtWEtRUlu_xBSSzoTpc3y1LxATWz-Zu8jYEHaKE6D1-XbVsXBS9U9WYFirC9pr86klfzuEIv57aAcpjJO0Dq2WJJMXDbq2ps-97YfwE_Ejcua9_jBpSOEXx5qYdyuQ7FYtXxeNZgyABh_OMuQrqeOJySqL1iU3ZK7q5yJSg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEg9v5Es_TmpXP27-yUqhlaXkD6lQOMLH1_HJ0D5oOE_x_bc7XDTvF0hZbiW8lfE60rERzVb46MAQLXWs6eQrb8UjwkZmoNudmmd7La0QtQtJpEcDIIfobLnHwqPeWNqKin1GHCMfglIZOmSnMqRm_wJiD1mXVCyHbQXeKXGa2bxS1hZ5yjfK-uPbZbp69k" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="978" data-original-width="1920" height="326" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEg9v5Es_TmpXP27-yUqhlaXkD6lQOMLH1_HJ0D5oOE_x_bc7XDTvF0hZbiW8lfE60rERzVb46MAQLXWs6eQrb8UjwkZmoNudmmd7La0QtQtJpEcDIIfobLnHwqPeWNqKin1GHCMfglIZOmSnMqRm_wJiD1mXVCyHbQXeKXGa2bxS1hZ5yjfK-uPbZbp69k=w640-h326" width="640" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-27536143492187925602023-08-10T04:51:00.004-07:002023-08-10T04:52:47.652-07:00Infrastructure<p> <span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: 12.8px;">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</span></p><div id="contentSub" style="background-color: white; color: #54595d; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.76px; line-height: 1.2em; margin: 8px 0px 0px; width: auto;"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div><div class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" id="mw-content-text" lang="en" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-top: 16px;"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">For the mathematical concept, see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_(number_theory)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Infrastructure (number theory)">Infrastructure (number theory)</a>.</div><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferry_Building_at_night.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="3775" data-file-width="6711" decoding="async" height="169" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ferry_Building_at_night.jpg/300px-Ferry_Building_at_night.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ferry_Building_at_night.jpg/450px-Ferry_Building_at_night.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ferry_Building_at_night.jpg/600px-Ferry_Building_at_night.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="300" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Ferry_Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="San Francisco Ferry Building">San Francisco Ferry Building</a> at night</figcaption></figure><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="background: rgb(248, 249, 250); border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); clear: right; float: right; font-size: 12.32px; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em 1em; padding: 0.2em; text-align: center; width: 22em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background: rgb(204, 204, 255); font-size: 17.864px; line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0.2em 0.8em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Public infrastructure">Public infrastructure</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding: 0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="2048" data-file-width="3072" decoding="async" height="153" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg/230px-Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg/345px-Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg/460px-Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="230" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0.2em 0.4em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Coulee_Dam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Grand Coulee Dam">Grand Coulee Dam</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding: 0px 0.5em 0.4em;"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible" style="text-align: left;"><button aria-expanded="false" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" style="appearance: none; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; cursor: pointer; float: right; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0.2em; user-select: none;" tabindex="0" type="button"><span class="mw-collapsible-text" style="color: #3366cc;">show</span></button><div style="background: lavender; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1.6em; padding: 0.2em 0px; text-align: center;"><div style="margin: 0px 4em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_asset" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Fixed asset">Assets</a> and facilities</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding: 0px 0.5em 0.4em;"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible" style="text-align: left;"><button aria-expanded="false" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" style="appearance: none; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; cursor: pointer; float: right; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0.2em; user-select: none;" tabindex="0" type="button"><span class="mw-collapsible-text" style="color: #3366cc;">show</span></button><div style="background: lavender; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1.6em; padding: 0.2em 0px; text-align: center;"><div style="margin: 0px 4em;">Concepts</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding: 0px 0.5em 0.4em;"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible" style="text-align: left;"><button aria-expanded="false" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" style="appearance: none; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; cursor: pointer; float: right; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0.2em; user-select: none;" tabindex="0" type="button"><span class="mw-collapsible-text" style="color: #3366cc;">show</span></button><div style="background: lavender; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1.6em; padding: 0.2em 0px; text-align: center;"><div style="margin: 0px 4em;">Issues and ideas</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding: 0px 0.5em 0.4em;"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible" style="text-align: left;"><button aria-expanded="false" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" style="appearance: none; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; cursor: pointer; float: right; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0.2em; user-select: none;" tabindex="0" type="button"><span class="mw-collapsible-text" style="color: #3366cc;">show</span></button><div style="background: lavender; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1.6em; padding: 0.2em 0px; text-align: center;"><div style="margin: 0px 4em;">Fields of study</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding: 0px 0.5em 0.4em;"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible" style="text-align: left;"><button aria-expanded="false" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" style="appearance: none; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; cursor: pointer; float: right; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0.2em; user-select: none;" tabindex="0" type="button"><span class="mw-collapsible-text" style="color: #3366cc;">show</span></button><div style="background: lavender; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1.6em; padding: 0.2em 0px; text-align: center;"><div style="margin: 0px 4em;">Examples</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background: lavender; font-weight: bold; padding: 0.3em 0.8em 0.25em;"><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li style="display: inline; margin: 0px;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="185" data-file-width="180" decoding="async" height="16" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="16" /></span></span> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Category:Infrastructure">Category</a></li><li style="display: inline; margin: 0px;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;"><img alt="icon" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="128" data-file-width="128" decoding="async" height="28" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="28" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Engineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Portal:Engineering">Engineering portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="font-size: 14.168px; padding: 0px 0.4em 0.4em; text-align: right;"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini" style="display: inline; font-size: 12.4678px;"><ul style="display: inline-block; line-height: inherit; list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><li class="nv-view" style="display: inline; margin: 0px; word-spacing: -0.125em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Public_Infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Template:Public Infrastructure"><abbr style="border-bottom: none; cursor: inherit; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration: inherit;" title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk" style="display: inline; margin: 0px; word-spacing: -0.125em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Public_Infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Template talk:Public Infrastructure"><abbr style="border-bottom: none; cursor: inherit; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration: inherit;" title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit" style="display: inline; margin: 0px; word-spacing: -0.125em;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Public_Infrastructure&action=edit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none;"><abbr style="border-bottom: none; cursor: inherit; font-variant-caps: small-caps; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration: inherit;" title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><b>Infrastructure</b> is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup> and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup> Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Road">roads</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railways" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Railways">railways</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bridge">bridges</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tunnel">tunnels</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water supply">water supply</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewerage" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sewerage">sewers</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_grid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Electrical grid">electrical grids</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> (including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_access" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Internet access">Internet connectivity</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Broadband">broadband access</a>). In general, infrastructure has been defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Commodity">commodities</a> and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quality of life">living conditions</a>" and maintain the surrounding environment.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Especially in light of the massive societal transformations needed to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigate</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change adaptation">adapt to</a> climate change, contemporary infrastructure conversations frequently focus on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Green infrastructure">green infrastructure</a>. Acknowledging this importance, the international community has created policy focused on sustainable infrastructure through the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a>, especially <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sustainable Development Goal 9">Sustainable Development Goal 9</a> "<a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry,_Innovation_and_Infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure">Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure</a>".</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">One way to describe different types of infrastructure is to classify them as two distinct kinds: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hard infrastructure">hard infrastructure</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Soft infrastructure">soft infrastructure</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> Hard infrastructure is the physical networks necessary for the functioning of a modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_(economics)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Industry (economics)">industry</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:0-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup> This includes roads, bridges, and railways. Soft infrastructure is all the institutions that maintain the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_of_living" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Standard of living">economic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public health">health</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_security" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Social security">social</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Natural environment">environmental</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Culture">cultural standards</a> of a country.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:0-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup> This includes <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_program" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Educational program">educational programs</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_statistics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Official statistics">official statistics</a>, parks and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Recreation">recreational</a> facilities, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a> agencies, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_services" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Emergency services">emergency services</a>.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The word "infrastructure" has been used in French since 1875 and in English since 1887, originally meaning "installations that form the basis for any operation or system".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[6]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-opendb.net_7-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-opendb.net-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[7]</a></sup> It is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanword" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Loanword">loanword</a> from French, where it was already used for establishing a roadbed of substrate material, required before railroad tracks or constructed pavement could be laid on top of it. The word is a combination of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Latin">Latin</a> prefix "infra", meaning "below", as many of these constructions are underground (for example, tunnels, water and gas systems, and railways), and the French word "structure" (derived from the Latin word "structure"). The army use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="NATO">NATO</a> in the 1940s, and by 1970 was adopted by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Urban planning">urban planners</a> in its modern civilian sense.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Classifications">Classifications</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Classifications">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 1987 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">US National Research Council</a> panel adopted the term "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_works" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public works">public works</a> infrastructure", referring to:</p><blockquote style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 32px;"><p style="margin: 0px;">"... both specific functional modes – highways, streets, roads, and bridges; <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_transit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mass transit">mass transit</a>; airports and airways; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water supply">water supply</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resources" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water resources">water resources</a>; <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater_management" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wastewater management">wastewater management</a>; <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-waste" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solid-waste">solid-waste</a> treatment and disposal; electric <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_generation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Power generation">power generation</a> and transmission; telecommunications; and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_waste" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste management</a> – and the combined system these modal elements comprise. A comprehension of infrastructure spans not only these public works facilities, but also the operating procedures, management practices, and development policies that interact together with societal demand and the physical world to facilitate the transport of people and goods, provision of water for drinking and a variety of other uses, safe disposal of society's waste products, provision of energy where it is needed, and transmission of information within and between communities."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineers" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="American Society of Civil Engineers">American Society of Civil Engineers</a> publishes an "Infrastructure Report Card" which represents the organizations opinion on the condition of various infrastructure every 2–4 years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-asce17_9-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-asce17-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup> As of 2017 they grade 16 categories, namely aviation, bridges, dams, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>, energy, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_waste" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inland_waterway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Inland waterway">inland waterways</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levee" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Levee">levees</a>, parks and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Recreation">recreation</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ports" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ports">ports</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Railway">rail</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roads" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Roads">roads</a>, schools, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_waste" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solid waste">solid waste</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transport" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public transport">transit</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-asce17_9-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-asce17-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> The United States has received a rating of "D+" on its infrastructure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> This aging infrastructure is a result of governmental neglect and inadequate funding.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> As the United States presumably looks to upgrade its existing infrastructure, sustainable measures could be a consideration of the design, build, and operation plans.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Personal">Personal</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Personal">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A way to embody personal infrastructure is to think of it in terms of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_capital" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Human capital">human capital</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:2_11-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:2-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> Human capital is defined by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> as "intangible collective resources possessed by individuals and groups within a given population".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup> The goal of personal infrastructure is to determine the quality of the economic agents' values. This results in three major tasks: the task of economic proxies in the economic process (teachers, unskilled and qualified labor, etc.); the importance of personal infrastructure for an individual (short and long-term consumption of education); and the social relevance of personal infrastructure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:2_11-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:2-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> Essentially, personal infrastructure maps the human impact on infrastructure as it is related to the economy, individual growth, and social impact.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Institutional">Institutional</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Institutional">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Institutional infrastructure branches from the term "economic constitution". According to <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gianpiero_Torrisi&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gianpiero Torrisi (page does not exist)">Gianpiero Torrisi</a>, institutional infrastructure is the object of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_policy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Economic policy">economic</a> and legal policy. It compromises the grown and sets norms.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:2_11-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:2-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> It refers to the degree of fair treatment of equal economic data and determines the framework within which economic agents may formulate their own economic plans and carry them out in co-operation with others.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sustainable">Sustainable</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sustainable">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Sustainable infrastructure refers to the processes of design and construction that take into consideration their environmental, economic, and social impact.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> Included in this section are several elements of sustainable schemes, including materials, water, energy, transportation, and waste management infrastructure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> Although there are endless other factors of consideration, those will not be covered in this section.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Material">Material</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Material">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Material infrastructure is defined as "those immobile, non-circulating capital goods that essentially contribute to the production of infrastructure goods and services needed to satisfy basic physical and social requirements of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_agent" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Economic agent">economic agents</a>".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:2_11-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:2-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> There are two distinct qualities of material infrastructures: 1) fulfillment of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_needs" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Social needs">social needs</a> and 2) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_production" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mass production">mass production</a>. The first characteristic deals with the basic needs of human life. The second characteristic is the non-availability of infrastructure goods and services.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:2_11-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:2-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> Today, there are various materials that can be used to build infrastructure. The most prevalent ones are asphalt, concrete, steel, masonry, wood, polymers and composites.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Economic">Economic</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Economic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">According to the business dictionary, economic infrastructure can be defined as "internal facilities of a country that make business activity possible, such as communication, transportation and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_network" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Distribution network">distribution networks</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_institution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Financial institution">financial institutions</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_market" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Financial market">markets</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_supply" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Energy supply">energy supply</a> systems".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[14]</a></sup> Economic infrastructure support productive activities and events. This includes roads, highways, bridges, airports, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cycling infrastructure">cycling infrastructure</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water supply">water distribution</a> networks, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewerage" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sewerage">sewer systems</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> plants.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:2_11-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:2-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Social">Social</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Social">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lehigh-Valley-Hospital.x.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="288" data-file-width="800" decoding="async" height="86" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Lehigh-Valley-Hospital.x.jpg/240px-Lehigh-Valley-Hospital.x.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Lehigh-Valley-Hospital.x.jpg/360px-Lehigh-Valley-Hospital.x.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Lehigh-Valley-Hospital.x.jpg/480px-Lehigh-Valley-Hospital.x.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="240" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehigh_Valley_Hospital%E2%80%93Cedar_Crest" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lehigh Valley Hospital–Cedar Crest">Lehigh Valley Hospital–Cedar Crest</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allentown,_Pennsylvania" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Allentown, Pennsylvania">Allentown, Pennsylvania</a></figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Social infrastructure can be broadly defined as the construction and maintenance of facilities that support <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_services" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Social services">social services</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[15]</a></sup> Social infrastructures are created to increase social comfort and promote economic activity. These include schools, parks and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playground" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Playground">playgrounds</a>, structures for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_security" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public security">public safety</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Waste">waste</a> disposal plants, hospitals, and sports areas.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:2_11-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:2-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Core">Core</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Core">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blick_auf_A_2_bei_Rastst%C3%A4tte_Lehrter_See_(2009).jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="2146" data-file-width="3821" decoding="async" height="135" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Blick_auf_A_2_bei_Rastst%C3%A4tte_Lehrter_See_%282009%29.jpg/240px-Blick_auf_A_2_bei_Rastst%C3%A4tte_Lehrter_See_%282009%29.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Blick_auf_A_2_bei_Rastst%C3%A4tte_Lehrter_See_%282009%29.jpg/360px-Blick_auf_A_2_bei_Rastst%C3%A4tte_Lehrter_See_%282009%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Blick_auf_A_2_bei_Rastst%C3%A4tte_Lehrter_See_%282009%29.jpg/480px-Blick_auf_A_2_bei_Rastst%C3%A4tte_Lehrter_See_%282009%29.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="240" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">An <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobahn" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Autobahn">Autobahn</a></i> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehrte" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lehrte">Lehrte</a>, near <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanover" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hanover">Hanover</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Core assets provide essential services and have monopolistic characteristics.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:3_16-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:3-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup> Investors seeking core infrastructure look for five different characteristics: income, low volatility of returns, diversification, inflation protection, and long-term liability matching.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:3_16-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:3-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup> Core infrastructure incorporates all the main types of infrastructure, such as roads, highways, railways, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transportation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public transportation">public transportation</a>, water, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gasoline">gas</a> supply.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Basic">Basic</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Basic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Basic infrastructure refers to main railways, roads, canals, harbors and docks, the electromagnetic telegraph, drainage, dikes, and land reclamation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:2_11-7" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:2-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> It consist of the more well-known and common features of infrastructure that we come across in our daily lives (buildings, roads, docks).</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Complementary">Complementary</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Complementary">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Complementary infrastructure refers to things like light railways, tramways, and gas/electricity/water supply.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:2_11-8" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:2-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> To complement something means to bring it to perfection or complete it. Complementary infrastructure deals with the little parts of the engineering world that make life more convenient and efficient. They are needed to ensure successful usage and marketing of an already finished product, like in the case of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_bridges" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Road bridges">road bridges</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[17]</a></sup> Other examples are lights on sidewalks, landscaping around buildings, and benches where pedestrians can rest.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Applications">Applications</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Engineering_and_construction">Engineering and construction</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Engineering and construction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Engineers generally limit the term "infrastructure" to describe <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_assets" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fixed assets">fixed assets</a> that are in the form of a large network; in other words, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hard infrastructure">hard infrastructure</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Efforts to devise more generic definitions of infrastructures have typically referred to the network aspects of most of the structures, and to the accumulated value of investments in the networks as assets.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> One such definition from 1998 defined infrastructure as the network of assets "where the system as a whole is intended to be maintained indefinitely at a specified standard of service by the continuing replacement and refurbishment of its components".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[18]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Civil_defense_and_economic_development">Civil defense and economic development</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Civil defense and economic development">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_defense_by_country" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Civil defense by country">Civil defense by country</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_defense" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a> planners and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_economics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Development economics">developmental economists</a> generally refer to both hard and soft infrastructure, including <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_services" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public services">public services</a> such as schools and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospitals" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hospitals">hospitals</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_services" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Emergency services">emergency services</a> such as police and fire fighting, and basic services in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_sector" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Economic sector">economic sector</a>. The notion of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure-based_development" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Infrastructure-based development">infrastructure-based development</a> combining long-term infrastructure investments by government agencies at central and regional levels with <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_private_partnership" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public private partnership">public private partnerships</a> has proven popular among economists in Asia (notably Singapore and China), mainland Europe, and Latin America.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Military">Military</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Military infrastructure is the buildings and permanent installations necessary for the support of military forces, whether they are stationed in bases, being deployed or engaged in operations. Examples include barracks, headquarters, airfields, communications facilities, stores of military equipment, port installations, and maintenance stations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Communications">Communications</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Communications">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Communications infrastructure is the informal and formal channels of communication, political and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Social network">social networks</a>, or beliefs held by members of particular groups, as well as information technology, software development tools. Still underlying these more conceptual uses is the idea that infrastructure provides organizing structure and support for the system or organization it serves, whether it is a city, a nation, a corporation, or a collection of people with common interests. Examples include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IT infrastructure">IT infrastructure</a>, research infrastructure, terrorist infrastructure, employment infrastructure, and tourism infrastructure.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Related_concepts">Related concepts</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Related concepts">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The term "infrastructure" may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_improvement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Land improvement">Land improvement</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_development" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Land development">land development</a> are general terms that in some contexts may include infrastructure, but in the context of a discussion of infrastructure would refer only to smaller-scale systems or works that are not included in infrastructure, because they are typically limited to a single <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_property" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Real property">parcel of land</a>, and are owned and operated by the landowner. For example, an irrigation canal that serves a region or district would be included with infrastructure, but the private irrigation systems on individual land parcels would be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. Service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[20]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[21]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The term "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_works" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public works">public works</a>" includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as public buildings, such as schools and courthouses. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_services" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public services">public services</a>. Public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by the government.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Ownership_and_financing">Ownership and financing</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Ownership and financing">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_and_economics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Infrastructure and economics">Infrastructure and economics</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by privately held companies, such as sole <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_utility" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public utility">public utility</a> or railway companies. Generally, most roads, major airports and other ports, water distribution systems, and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_network" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Telecommunications network">telecommunications networks</a> are privately owned.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for from taxes, tolls, or metered user fees, whereas private infrastructure is generally paid for by metered user fees.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[22]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[23]</a></sup> Major investment projects are generally financed by the issuance of long-term <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_(finance)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bond (finance)">bonds</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Government-owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_sector" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Private sector">private sector</a> or in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-private_partnership" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public-private partnership">public-private partnerships</a>, in addition to in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sector" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public sector">public sector</a>. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2.3% and 3.6% of GDP since 1950.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[24]</a></sup> Many financial institutions invest in infrastructure.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="In_the_developing_world">In the developing world</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: In the developing world">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">According to researchers at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a>, the lack of infrastructure in many <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_countries" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)</a>. Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa. It has been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average thirty to forty percent returns for telecommunications (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Information and communications technology">ICT</a>) investments, over forty percent for electricity generation, and eighty percent for <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roads" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Roads">roads</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ODI1_25-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-ODI1-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Regional_differences">Regional differences</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Regional differences">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The demand for infrastructure both by consumers and by companies is much higher than the amount invested.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ODI1_25-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-ODI1-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup> There are severe constraints on the supply side of the provision of infrastructure in Asia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[26]</a></sup> The infrastructure financing gap between what is invested in Asia-Pacific (around US$48 billion) and what is needed (US$228 billion) is around US$180 billion every year.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ODI1_25-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-ODI1-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In Latin America, three percent of GDP (around US$71 billion) would need to be invested in infrastructure in order to satisfy demand, yet in 2005, for example, only around two percent was invested leaving a financing gap of approximately US$24 billion.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ODI1_25-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-ODI1-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In Africa, in order to reach the seven percent annual growth calculated to be required to meet the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Millennium Development Goals">MDGs</a> by 2015 would require infrastructure investments of about fifteen percent of GDP, or around US$93 billion a year. In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragile_state" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fragile state">fragile states</a>, over thirty-seven percent of GDP would be required.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ODI1_25-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-ODI1-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources_of_funding_for_infrastructure">Sources of funding for infrastructure</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sources of funding for infrastructure">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The source of financing for infrastructure varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_spending" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Government spending">government spending</a>, others by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_aid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Development aid">overseas development aid (ODA)</a>, and yet others by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_sector" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Private sector">private</a> investors.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ODI1_25-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-ODI1-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup> In California, infrastructure financing districts are established by local governments to pay for physical facilities and services within a specified area by using property tax increases.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[27]</a></sup> In order to facilitate investment of the private sector in developing countries' infrastructure markets, it is necessary to design risk-allocation mechanisms more carefully, given the higher risks of their markets.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[28]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The spending money that comes from the government is less than it used to be. From the 1930s to 2019, the United States went from spending 4.2% of GDP to 2.5% of GDP on infrastructure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:5_29-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:5-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[29]</a></sup> These under investments have accrued, in fact, according to the 2017 ASCE Infrastructure Report Card, from 2016 to 2025, infrastructure will be underinvested by $2 trillion.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:5_29-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:5-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[29]</a></sup> Compared to the global GDP percentages, The United States is tied for second-to-last place, with an average percentage of 2.4%. This means that the government spends less money on repairing old infrastructure and or on infrastructure as a whole.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[30]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, governments spend around US$9.4 billion out of a total of US$24.9 billion. In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, governments represent almost all spending. In transport and energy a majority of investment is government spending. In <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communication_technologies" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Information and communication technologies">ICT</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water supply">water supply</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, between them aid, the private sector, and non-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECD" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="OECD">OECD</a> financiers exceed government spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased in the 2000s (decade) and in Africa alone external infrastructure investments increased from US$7 billion in 2002 to US$27 billion in 2009. China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ODI1_25-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-ODI1-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Coronavirus_implications">Coronavirus implications</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Coronavirus implications">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated the underfunding of infrastructure globally that has been accumulating for decades. The pandemic has increased unemployment and has widely disrupted the economy. This has serious impacts on households, businesses, and federal, state and local governments. This is especially detrimental to infrastructure because it is so dependent on funding from government agencies – with state and local governments accounting for approximately 75% of spending on public infrastructure in the United States.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Governments are facing enormous decreases in revenue, economic downturns, overworked health systems, and hesitant workforces, resulting in huge budget deficits across the board. However, they must also scale up public investment to ensure successful reopening, boost growth and employment, and green their economies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:1_32-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:1-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[32]</a></sup> The unusually large scale of the packages needed for COVID-19 was accompanied by widespread calls for "greening" them to meet the dual goals of economic recovery and environmental sustainability.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:11_33-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:11-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup> However, as of March 2021, only a small fraction of the G20 COVID-19 related fiscal measures was found to be climate friendly.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:11_33-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:11-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sustainable_infrastructure">Sustainable infrastructure</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sustainable infrastructure">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sustainable infrastructure">Sustainable infrastructure</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Although it is readily apparent that much effort is needed to repair the economic damage inflicted by the Coronavirus epidemic, an immediate return to business as usual could be environmentally harmful, as shown by the 2007-08 financial crisis in the United States. While the ensuing economic slowdown reduced global greenhouse gas emissions in 2009, emissions reached a record high in 2010, partially due to governments' implemented economic stimulus measures with minimal consideration of the environmental consequences.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:6_34-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:6-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[34]</a></sup> The concern is whether this same pattern will repeat itself. The post-COVID-19 period could determine whether the world meets or misses the emissions goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement and limits global warming to 1.5 degrees C to 2 degrees C.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[35]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">As a result of the COVID-19 epidemic, a host of factors could jeopardize a low-carbon recovery plan: this includes reduced attention on the global political stage (2020 UN Climate Summit has been postponed to 2021), the relaxing of environmental regulations in pursuit of economic growth, decreased oil prices preventing low-carbon technologies from being competitive, and finally, stimulus programs that take away funds that could have been used to further the process of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Low-carbon economy">decarbonization</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:6_34-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:6-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[34]</a></sup> Research suggests that a recovery plan based on lower-carbon emissions could not only make significant emissions reductions needed to battle climate change, but also create more economic growth and jobs than a high-carbon recovery plan would.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:6_34-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:6-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[34]</a></sup> A study published in the Oxford Review of Economic Policy, more than 200 economists and economic officials reported that "green" economic-recovery initiatives performed at least as well as less "green" initiatives.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup> There have also been calls for an independent body could provide a comparable assessment of countries' fiscal policies, promoting transparency and accountability at the international level.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:11_33-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:11-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In addition, in an econometric study published in the Economic Modelling journal, an analysis on government energy technology spending showed that spending on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sector created five more jobs per million dollars invested than spending on <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuels" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[37]</a></sup> Since sustainable infrastructure is more beneficial in both an economic and environmental context, it represents the future of infrastructure. Especially with increasing pressure from climate change and diminishing natural resources, infrastructure not only needs to maintain economic development and job development, and a high quality of life for residents, but also protect the environment and its natural resources.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:1_32-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:1-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[32]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sustainable_energy">Sustainable energy</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sustainable energy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_energy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a> infrastructure includes types of renewable energy power plants as well as the means of exchange from the plant to the homes and businesses that use that energy. Renewable energy includes well researched and widely implemented methods such as wind, solar, and hydraulic power, as well as newer and less commonly used types of power creation such as fusion energy. Sustainable energy infrastructure must maintain a strong supply relative to demand, and must also maintain sufficiently low prices for consumers so as not to decrease demand.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> Any type of renewable energy infrastructure that fails to meet these consumption and price requirements will ultimately be forced out of the market by prevailing non renewable energy sources.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sustainable_water">Sustainable water</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sustainable water">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Sustainable water infrastructure is focused on a community's sufficient access to clean, safe drinking water.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> Water is a public good along with electricity, which means that sustainable water catchment and distribution systems must remain affordable to all members of a population.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> "Sustainable Water" may refer to a nation or community's ability to be self-sustainable, with enough water to meet multiple needs including agriculture, industry, sanitation, and drinking water. It can also refer to the holistic and effective management of water resources.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-38" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[38]</a></sup> Increasingly, policy makers and regulators are incorporating <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a> (NBS or NbS) into attempts to achieve sustainable water infrastructure.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sustainable_waste_management">Sustainable waste management</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sustainable waste management">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Sustainable waste management systems aim to minimize the amount of waste products produced by individuals and corporations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:7_39-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:7-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[39]</a></sup> Commercial waste management plans have transitioned from simple waste removal plans into comprehensive plans focused on reducing the total amount of waste produced before removal.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:7_39-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:7-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[39]</a></sup> Sustainable waste management is beneficial environmentally, and can also cut costs for businesses that reduce their amount of disposed goods.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:7_39-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:7-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[39]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sustainable_transportation">Sustainable transportation</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sustainable transportation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_transport" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Sustainable transportation includes a shift away from private, greenhouse gas emitting cars in favor of adopting methods of transportation that are either <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon neutrality">carbon neutral</a> or reduce carbon emissions such as bikes or electric bus systems.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:8_40-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:8-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup> Additionally, cities must invest in the appropriate built environments for these ecologically preferable modes of transportation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:8_40-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:8-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup> Cities will need to invest in public transportation networks, as well as bike path networks among other sustainable solutions that incentivize citizens to use these alternate transit options. Reducing the urban dependency on cars is a fundamental goal of developing sustainable transportation, and this cannot be accomplished without a coordinated focus on both creating the methods of transportation themselves and providing them with networks that are equally or more efficient than existing car networks such as aging highway systems.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:8_40-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:8-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sustainable_materials">Sustainable materials</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sustainable materials">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Another solution to transition into a more sustainable infrastructure is using more sustainable materials. A material is sustainable if the needed amount can be produced without depleting non-renewable resources.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sustain.rutgers.edu_41-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-sustain.rutgers.edu-41" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[41]</a></sup> It also should have low environmental impacts by not disrupting the established steady-state equilibrium of it.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sustain.rutgers.edu_41-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-sustain.rutgers.edu-41" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[41]</a></sup> The materials should also be resilient, renewable, reusable, and recyclable.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-42" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[42]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Today, concrete is one of the most common materials used in infrastructure. There is twice as much concrete used in construction than all other building materials combined.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-43" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-43" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[43]</a></sup> It is the backbone of industrialization, as it is used in bridges, piers, pipelines, pavements, and buildings.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_44-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-44" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[44]</a></sup> However, while they do serve as a connection between cities, transportation for people and goods, and protection for land against flooding and erosion, they only last for 50 to 100 years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_44-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-44" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[44]</a></sup> Many were built within the last 50 years, which means many infrastructures need substantial maintenance to continue functioning.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">However, concrete is not sustainable. The production of concrete contributes up to 8% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iwbcc.com_45-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-iwbcc.com-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup> A tenth of the world's industrial water usage is from producing concrete.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iwbcc.com_45-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-iwbcc.com-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup> Even transporting the raw materials to concrete production sites adds to airborne pollution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iwbcc.com_45-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-iwbcc.com-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup> Furthermore, the production sites and the infrastructures themselves all strip away agricultural land that could have been fertile soil or habitats vital to the ecosystem.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Green_infrastructure">Green infrastructure</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Green infrastructure">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Green infrastructure">Green infrastructure</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Green infrastructure is a type of sustainable infrastructure. Green infrastructure uses plant or soil systems to restore some of the natural processes needed to manage water and create healthier urban environments.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Konstantinos_L_2016_46-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-Konstantinos_L_2016-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[46]</a></sup> In a more practical sense, it refers to a decentralized network of stormwater management practices, which includes green roofs, trees, bioretention and infiltration, and permeable pavement.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:7b_47-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:7b-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup> Green infrastructure has become an increasingly popular strategy in recent years due to its effectiveness in providing ecological, economic, and social benefits – including positively impacting energy consumption, air quality, and carbon reduction and sequestration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:7b_47-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:7b-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Green_roofs">Green roofs</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Green roofs">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_roof" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Green roof">green roof</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A green roof is a rooftop that is partially or completely covered with growing vegetation planted over a membrane. It also includes additional layers, including a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:8b_48-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:8b-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[48]</a></sup> There are several categories of green roofs, including extensive (have a growing media depth ranging from two to six inches) and intensive (have a growing media with a depth greater than six inches).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:8b_48-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:8b-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[48]</a></sup> One benefit of green roofs is that they reduce <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stormwater_runoff" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stormwater runoff">stormwater runoff</a> because of its ability to store water in its growing media, reducing the runoff entering the sewer system and waterways, which also decreases the risk of combined sewer overflows.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:8b_48-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:8b-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[48]</a></sup> They reduce energy usage since the growing media provides additional insulation, reduces the amount of solar radiation on the roof's surface, and provides evaporative cooling from water in the plants, which reduce the roof surface temperatures and heat influx.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:8b_48-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:8b-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[48]</a></sup> Green roofs also reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide since the vegetation sequesters carbon and, since they reduce energy usage and the urban heat island by reducing the roof temperature, they also lower carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-49" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[49]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Tree_planting">Tree planting</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Tree planting">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_planting" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tree planting">Tree planting</a> provides a host of ecological, social, and economic benefits. Trees can intercept rain, support infiltration and water storage in soil, diminish the impact of raindrops on barren surfaces, minimize soil moisture through transpiration, and they help reduce stormwater runoff.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Konstantinos_L_2016_46-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-Konstantinos_L_2016-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[46]</a></sup> Additionally, trees contribute to recharging local aquifers and improve the health of watershed systems. Trees also reduce energy usage by providing shade and releasing water into the atmosphere which cools the air and reduces the amount of heat absorbed by buildings.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:7b_47-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:7b-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup> Finally, trees improve air quality by absorbing harmful air pollutants reducing the amount of greenhouse gases.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Bioretention_and_infiltration_practices">Bioretention and infiltration practices</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Bioretention and infiltration practices">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">There are a variety of types of bioretention and infiltration practices, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_garden" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rain garden">rain gardens</a> and bioswales.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:7b_47-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:7b-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup> A rain garden is planted in a small depression or natural slope and includes native shrubs and flowers. They temporarily hold and absorb rain water and are effective in removing up to 90% of nutrients and chemicals and up to 80% of sediments from the runoff.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-50" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-50" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[50]</a></sup> As a result, they soak 30% more water than conventional gardens.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-51" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[51]</a></sup> Bioswales are planted in paved areas like parking lots or sidewalks and are made to allow for overflow into the sewer system by trapping silt and other pollutants, which are normally left over from impermeable surfaces.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:7b_47-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:7b-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup> Both rain gardens and bioswales mitigate flood impacts and prevent stormwater from polluting local waterways; increase the usable water supply by reducing the amount of water needed for outdoor irrigation; improve air quality by minimizing the amount of water going into treatment facilities, which also reduces energy usage and, as a result, reduces air pollution since less greenhouse gases are emitted.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:7b_47-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:7b-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Smart_cities">Smart cities</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Smart cities">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main articles: <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_cities" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Smart cities">smart cities</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_resilience" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Urban resilience">urban resilience</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Smart cities use innovative methods of design and implementation in various sectors of infrastructure and planning to create communities that operate at a higher level of relative sustainability than their traditional counterparts.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-7" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> In a sustainable city, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_resilience" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Urban resilience">urban resilience</a> as well as infrastructure reliability must both be present.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-8" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> Urban resilience is defined by a city's capacity to quickly adapt or recover from infrastructure defects, and infrastructure reliability means that systems must work efficiently while continuing to maximize their output.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_10-9" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:4-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> When urban resilience and infrastructure reliability interact, cities are able to produce the same level of output at similarly reasonable costs as compared to other non sustainable communities, while still maintaining ease of operation and usage.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Masdar_City">Masdar City</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Masdar City">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masdar_City" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Masdar City">Masdar City</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Masdar City is a proposed zero emission smart city that will be contracted in the United Arab Emirates.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_52-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:9-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup> Some individuals have referred to this planned settlement as "utopia-like", due to the fact that it will feature multiple sustainable infrastructure elements, including energy, water, waste management, and transportation. Masdar City will have a power infrastructure containing renewable energy methods including solar energy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_52-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:9-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Masdar City is located in a desert region, meaning that sustainable collection and distribution of water is dependent on the city's ability to use water at innovative stages of the water cycle.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:10_53-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:10-53" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[53]</a></sup> The city will use groundwater, greywater, seawater, blackwater, and other water resources to obtain both drinking and landscaping water.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:10_53-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:10-53" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[53]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Initially, Masdar City will be waste-free.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_52-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:9-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup> Recycling and other waste management and waste reduction methods will be encouraged.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_52-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:9-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup> Additionally, the city will implement a system to convert waste into fertilizer, which will decrease the amount of space needed for waste accumulation as well as provide an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional fertilizer production methods.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">No cars will be allowed in Masdar City, contributing to low carbon emissions within the city boundaries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_52-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:9-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup> Instead, alternative transportation options will be prioritized during infrastructure development. This means that a bike lane network will be accessible and comprehensive, and other options will also be available.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_52-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_note-:9-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><ul aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright" role="navigation" style="background: rgb(249, 249, 249); border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; display: table; float: right; list-style: none; margin: 0.5em 0px 0.5em 1em; max-width: 175px; padding: 0.1em;"><li class="portalbox-entry" style="display: table-row; font-size: 11.9px; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; height: 1.9em; line-height: 13.09px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="portalbox-image" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="icon" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="128" data-file-width="128" decoding="async" height="28" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="28" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Engineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Portal:Engineering">Engineering portal</a></span></li></ul><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Airport infrastructure">Airport infrastructure</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset_Management_Plan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Asset Management Plan">Asset Management Plan</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Green infrastructure">Green infrastructure</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_as_a_service" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Infrastructure as a service">Infrastructure as a service</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_asset_management" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Infrastructure asset management">Infrastructure asset management</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_security" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Infrastructure security">Infrastructure security</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Logistics">Logistics</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaproject" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Megaproject">Megaproject</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_finance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Project finance">Project finance</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-urbanization" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pseudo-urbanization">Pseudo-urbanization</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_capital" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Public capital">Public capital</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sustainable architecture">Sustainable architecture</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainable engineering</a></li></ul></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12.6px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns" style="column-width: 30em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><ol class="references" style="counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-parent 0 mw-references 0 list-item 0; font-size: 12.6px; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li id="cite_note-1" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">. <a class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/infrastructure" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Infrastructure | Define Infrastructure at Dictionary.com</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305150655/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/infrastructure" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 2016-03-05 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-2" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFO'SullivanSheffrin2003" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_O%27Sullivan_(economist)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arthur O'Sullivan (economist)">O'Sullivan, Arthur</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_M._Sheffrin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Steven M. Sheffrin">Sheffrin, Steven M.</a> (2003). <span class="cs1-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicsprincip00osul" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Economics: Principles in Action</i></a></span>. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicsprincip00osul/page/n490" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">474</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-063085-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-063085-8"><bdi>978-0-13-063085-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics%3A+Principles+in+Action&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.pages=474&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-13-063085-8&rft.aulast=O%27Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft.au=Sheffrin%2C+Steven+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicsprincip00osul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-3" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFFulmer2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Fulmer, Jeffrey (2009). "What in the world is infrastructure?". <i>PEI Infrastructure Investor</i> (July/August): 30–32.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PEI+Infrastructure+Investor&rft.atitle=What+in+the+world+is+infrastructure%3F&rft.issue=July%2FAugust&rft.pages=30-32&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Fulmer&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-4" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDyerDyerWengWu2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dyer, Mark; Dyer, Rachel; Weng, Min-Hsien; Wu, Shaoqun; Grey, Thomas; Gleeson, Richard; Ferrari, Tomás García (December 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/10.1680/jurdp.19.00021" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Framework for soft and hard city infrastructures"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning</i>. <b>172</b> (6): 219–227. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1680%2Fjurdp.19.00021" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1680/jurdp.19.00021</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1755-0793" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1755-0793</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209056612" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">209056612</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Institution+of+Civil+Engineers+-+Urban+Design+and+Planning&rft.atitle=Framework+for+soft+and+hard+city+infrastructures&rft.volume=172&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=219-227&rft.date=2019-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A209056612%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1755-0793&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1680%2Fjurdp.19.00021&rft.aulast=Dyer&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Dyer%2C+Rachel&rft.au=Weng%2C+Min-Hsien&rft.au=Wu%2C+Shaoqun&rft.au=Grey%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Gleeson%2C+Richard&rft.au=Ferrari%2C+Tom%C3%A1s+Garc%C3%ADa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icevirtuallibrary.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1680%2Fjurdp.19.00021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:0-5" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:0_5-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:0_5-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFHamutak" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hamutak, Luta. <a class="external text" href="https://www.laohamutuk.org/econ/14TLDPM/InfraCSOen.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Civil Society Comments on Infrastructure Strategic Sector"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Civil+Society+Comments+on+Infrastructure+Strategic+Sector&rft.aulast=Hamutak&rft.aufirst=Luta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.laohamutuk.org%2Fecon%2F14TLDPM%2FInfraCSOen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-6" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. <a class="external free" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/infrastructure" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none; word-break: break-all;">http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/infrastructure</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305150655/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/infrastructure" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 2016-03-05 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (accessed: April 24, 2008)</span></li><li id="cite_note-opendb.net-7" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-opendb.net_7-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723233028/http://www.opendb.net/element/19099.php" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Soft Infrastructure – Definition"</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.opendb.net/element/19099.php" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 2011-07-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2015-03-21</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Soft+Infrastructure+%E2%80%93+Definition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.opendb.net%2Felement%2F19099.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-8" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Research_CouncilCommittee_on_Infrastructure_Innovation1987" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Research Council; Committee on Infrastructure Innovation (1987). <a class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog/798" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Infrastructure for the 21st Century: Framework for a Research Agenda</i></a>. Washington, D.C. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F798" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.17226/798</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-07814-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-07814-6"><bdi>978-0-309-07814-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Infrastructure+for+the+21st+Century%3A+Framework+for+a+Research+Agenda&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F798&rft.isbn=978-0-309-07814-6&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rft.au=Committee+on+Infrastructure+Innovation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog%2F798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-asce17-9" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-asce17_9-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-asce17_9-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/2017-Infrastructure-Report-Card.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">2017 Infrastructure Report</a>, 112pp, American Society of Civil Engineers, 2017</span></li><li id="cite_note-:4-10" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:4_10-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCervero2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cervero, Robert (2014-12-02). <a class="external text" href="http://journals.itb.ac.id/index.php/jpwk/article/view/1286" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Transport Infrastructure and the Environment in the Global South: Sustainable Mobility and Urbanism"</a>. <i>Journal of Regional and City Planning</i>. <b>25</b> (3): 174–191. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5614%2Fjpwk.2015.25.3.1" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.5614/jpwk.2015.25.3.1</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2502-6429" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2502-6429</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Regional+and+City+Planning&rft.atitle=Transport+Infrastructure+and+the+Environment+in+the+Global+South%3A+Sustainable+Mobility+and+Urbanism&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=174-191&rft.date=2014-12-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5614%2Fjpwk.2015.25.3.1&rft.issn=2502-6429&rft.aulast=Cervero&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.itb.ac.id%2Findex.php%2Fjpwk%2Farticle%2Fview%2F1286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:2-11" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:2_11-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:2_11-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:2_11-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:2_11-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:2_11-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:2_11-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:2_11-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:2_11-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:2_11-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFTorrisi2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Torrisi, Gianpiero (January 2009). <a class="external text" href="https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/12990/1/Survey_infra_def.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Public infrastructure: definition, classification and measurement issues"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Public+infrastructure%3A+definition%2C+classification+and+measurement+issues&rft.date=2009-01&rft.aulast=Torrisi&rft.aufirst=Gianpiero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de%2F12990%2F1%2FSurvey_infra_def.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-12" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-capital" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Human capital | economics"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2018-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Human+capital+%7C+economics&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fhuman-capital&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-13" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.caee.utexas.edu/research/specialities/infrastructure" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Infrastructure Materials Engineering – Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering"</a>. <i>www.caee.utexas.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.caee.utexas.edu&rft.atitle=Infrastructure+Materials+Engineering+%E2%80%93+Department+of+Civil%2C+Architectural+and+Environmental+Engineering&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.caee.utexas.edu%2Fresearch%2Fspecialities%2Finfrastructure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-14" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180426075850/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/economic-infrastructure.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"What is economic infrastructure? definition and meaning"</a>. <i>BusinessDictionary.com</i>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/economic-infrastructure.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 2018-04-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2018-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BusinessDictionary.com&rft.atitle=What+is+economic+infrastructure%3F+definition+and+meaning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessdictionary.com%2Fdefinition%2Feconomic-infrastructure.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-15" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFCohen2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cohen, Gershon (20 July 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.aberdeenstandard.com/en-us/us/investor/insights-thinking-aloud/article-page/what-is-social-infrastructure" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"What is social infrastructure?"</a>. <i>Aberdeen Standard Investments</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aberdeen+Standard+Investments&rft.atitle=What+is+social+infrastructure%3F&rft.date=2017-07-20&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Gershon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aberdeenstandard.com%2Fen-us%2Fus%2Finvestor%2Finsights-thinking-aloud%2Farticle-page%2Fwhat-is-social-infrastructure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:3-16" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:3_16-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:3_16-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFPease2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Pease, Bob (October 28, 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210420164714/https://www.ncpers.org/files/Conference%20Docs/Public%20Safety/2014%20Handouts/Robert%20Pease_Tuesday.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Infrastructure Investment Opportunities for Public Safety Plans"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncpers.org/files/Conference%20Docs/Public%20Safety/2014%20Handouts/Robert%20Pease_Tuesday.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> on April 20, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Edition 1.1</span></li><li id="cite_note-19" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D.O.D. Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 2001 (rev. 2005)</span></li><li id="cite_note-20" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Land improvement</i>, Online BusinessDictionary.com, <a class="external free" href="http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-development.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none; word-break: break-all;">http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-development.html</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100526231021/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-development.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 2010-05-26 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (accessed January 31, 2009)</span></li><li id="cite_note-21" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Land development</i>, Online BusinessDictionary.com, <a class="external free" href="http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-development.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none; word-break: break-all;">http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-development.html</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100526231021/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-development.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 2010-05-26 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (accessed January 31, 2009)</span></li><li id="cite_note-22" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.francoangeli.it/Ricerca/scheda_libro.aspx?Id=26150" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Business models for transport infrastructure assets? Some experiences in Europe. In The decision-making process for infrastructural investment choices"</a>. FrancoAngeli. 2020.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Business+models+for+transport+infrastructure+assets%3F+Some+experiences+in+Europe.+In+The+decision-making+process+for+infrastructural+investment+choices&rft.pub=FrancoAngeli&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.francoangeli.it%2FRicerca%2Fscheda_libro.aspx%3FId%3D26150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-23" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCardenasVoordijkGeert2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cardenas, I.; Voordijk, H; Geert, D. (2018). <a class="external text" href="https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/beyond-project-governance-enhancing-funding-and-enabling-financin" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Beyond project governance. Enhancing funding and enabling financing for infrastructure in transport. Findings from the importance analysis approach"</a>. <i>European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research</i>. <b>18</b> (4). <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18757%2Fejtir.2018.18.4.3261" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.18757/ejtir.2018.18.4.3261</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Transport+and+Infrastructure+Research&rft.atitle=Beyond+project+governance.+Enhancing+funding+and+enabling+financing+for+infrastructure+in+transport.+Findings+from+the+importance+analysis+approach&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18757%2Fejtir.2018.18.4.3261&rft.aulast=Cardenas&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Voordijk%2C+H&rft.au=Geert%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.utwente.nl%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Fbeyond-project-governance-enhancing-funding-and-enabling-financin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-24" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The New York Times, <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2008/11/19/business/economy/19leonhardt_graphic.ready.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Money for Public Projects"</a>, November 19, 2008 (accessed January 26, 2009)</span></li><li id="cite_note-ODI1-25" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-ODI1_25-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-ODI1_25-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-ODI1_25-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-ODI1_25-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-ODI1_25-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-ODI1_25-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-ODI1_25-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Christian K.M. Kingombe 2011. <a class="external text" href="https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/6311.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Mapping the new infrastructure financing landscape</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190411215934/https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/6311.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 2019-04-11 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. London: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-26" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter McCawley (2010), '<a class="external text" href="http://apel.anu.edu.au/pdf/24-1/Articles/mccawley.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Infrastructure Policy in Developing countries'</a><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151017001815/http://apel.anu.edu.au/pdf/24-1/Articles/mccawley.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> 2015-10-17 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Asian-Pacific Economic Literature</i>, 24(1), May. See also Asian-Pacific Economic Literature Policy Brief No 19, May 2010, on '<a class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/64MYnL7A1?url=http://apel.anu.edu.au/pdf/24-1/Policy/mccawley.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Infrastructure policy in developing countries in Asia'</a>.</span></li><li id="cite_note-27" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBarclayGray2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Barclay, Cecily; Gray, Matthew (2016). <i>California Land Use and Planning Law</i> (35 ed.). California: Solano Press. p. 585. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-938166-11-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-938166-11-2"><bdi>978-1-938166-11-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=California+Land+Use+and+Planning+Law&rft.place=California&rft.pages=585&rft.edition=35&rft.pub=Solano+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-938166-11-2&rft.aulast=Barclay&rft.aufirst=Cecily&rft.au=Gray%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-28" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFKoh2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Koh, Jae-myong (2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1023427026" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Green Infrastructure Financing : Institutional Investors, PPPs and Bankable Projects</i></a>. Cham, Switzerland. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-71770-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-71770-8"><bdi>978-3-319-71770-8</bdi></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1023427026" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1023427026</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Green+Infrastructure+Financing+%3A+Institutional+Investors%2C+PPPs+and+Bankable+Projects&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1023427026&rft.isbn=978-3-319-71770-8&rft.aulast=Koh&rft.aufirst=Jae-myong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1023427026&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:5-29" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:5_29-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:5_29-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/covid-status-report/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"COVID-19 Status Report"</a>. <i>ASCE's 2017 Infrastructure Report Card</i>. 23 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ASCE%27s+2017+Infrastructure+Report+Card&rft.atitle=COVID-19+Status+Report&rft.date=2020-06-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infrastructurereportcard.org%2Fcovid-status-report%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-30" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/10/20/large-economic-gains-can-come-from-mundane-improvements-in-policy" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Large economic gains can come from mundane improvements in policy"</a>. <i>The Economist</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2018-10-25</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Large+economic+gains+can+come+from+mundane+improvements+in+policy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fleaders%2F2018%2F10%2F20%2Flarge-economic-gains-can-come-from-mundane-improvements-in-policy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-31" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/its-time-for-states-to-invest-in-infrastructure" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"It's Time for States to Invest in Infrastructure"</a>. <i>Center on Budget and Policy Priorities</i>. 2016-02-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+on+Budget+and+Policy+Priorities&rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+for+States+to+Invest+in+Infrastructure&rft.date=2016-02-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbpp.org%2Fresearch%2Fstate-budget-and-tax%2Fits-time-for-states-to-invest-in-infrastructure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:1-32" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:1_32-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:1_32-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAllenTandberg2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Allen, Richard I.; Tandberg, Eivind (2021-07-22). <a class="external text" href="https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/061/2021/007/article-A001-en.xml" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How to Manage Public Investment during a Postcrisis Recovery"</a>. <i>IMF How to Notes</i>. <b>2021</b> (7). <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5089%2F9781513584416.061.A001" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.5089/9781513584416.061.A001</a> (inactive 1 August 2023).</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IMF+How+to+Notes&rft.atitle=How+to+Manage+Public+Investment+during+a+Postcrisis+Recovery&rft.volume=2021&rft.issue=7&rft.date=2021-07-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5089%2F9781513584416.061.A001&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Richard+I.&rft.au=Tandberg%2C+Eivind&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elibrary.imf.org%2Fview%2Fjournals%2F061%2F2021%2F007%2Farticle-A001-en.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:11-33" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:11_33-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:11_33-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:11_33-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFEltokhyFunkeHuangKim2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Eltokhy, Khaled; Funke, Katja; Huang, Guohua; Kim, Yujin; Zinabou, Genet (2021-10-29). <a class="external text" href="https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/001/2021/259/article-A001-en.xml" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Monitoring the Climate Impact of Fiscal Policy – Lessons from Tracking the COVID-19 Response"</a>. <i>IMF Working Papers</i>. <b>2021</b> (259). <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5089%2F9781589067769.001.A001" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.5089/9781589067769.001.A001</a> (inactive 1 August 2023).</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IMF+Working+Papers&rft.atitle=Monitoring+the+Climate+Impact+of+Fiscal+Policy+%E2%80%93+Lessons+from+Tracking+the+COVID-19+Response&rft.volume=2021&rft.issue=259&rft.date=2021-10-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5089%2F9781589067769.001.A001&rft.aulast=Eltokhy&rft.aufirst=Khaled&rft.au=Funke%2C+Katja&rft.au=Huang%2C+Guohua&rft.au=Kim%2C+Yujin&rft.au=Zinabou%2C+Genet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elibrary.imf.org%2Fview%2Fjournals%2F001%2F2021%2F259%2Farticle-A001-en.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:6-34" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:6_34-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:6_34-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:6_34-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/how-a-post-pandemic-stimulus-can-both-create-jobs-and-help-the-climate" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How a post-pandemic stimulus can both create jobs and help the climate | McKinsey"</a>. <i>www.mckinsey.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mckinsey.com&rft.atitle=How+a+post-pandemic+stimulus+can+both+create+jobs+and+help+the+climate+%7C+McKinsey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mckinsey.com%2Fbusiness-functions%2Fsustainability%2Four-insights%2Fhow-a-post-pandemic-stimulus-can-both-create-jobs-and-help-the-climate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-35" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Paris Agreement – UNFCCC"</a>. <i>unfccc.int</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2022-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unfccc.int&rft.atitle=The+Paris+Agreement+%E2%80%93+UNFCCC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funfccc.int%2Fprocess-and-meetings%2Fthe-paris-agreement%2Fthe-paris-agreement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-36" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFHepburnO’CallaghanSternStiglitz2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hepburn, Cameron; O’Callaghan, Brian; Stern, Nicholas; Stiglitz, Joseph; Zenghelis, Dimitri (2020-09-28). <a class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/Supplement_1/S359/5832003" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Will COVID-19 fiscal recovery packages accelerate or retard progress on climate change?"</a>. <i>Oxford Review of Economic Policy</i>. <b>36</b> (Supplement_1): S359–S381. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxrep%2Fgraa015" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1093/oxrep/graa015</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0266-903X" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0266-903X</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7239121" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7239121</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218942009" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">218942009</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Review+of+Economic+Policy&rft.atitle=Will+COVID-19+fiscal+recovery+packages+accelerate+or+retard+progress+on+climate+change%3F&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=Supplement_1&rft.pages=S359-S381&rft.date=2020-09-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7239121%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218942009%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0266-903X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxrep%2Fgraa015&rft.aulast=Hepburn&rft.aufirst=Cameron&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Callaghan%2C+Brian&rft.au=Stern%2C+Nicholas&rft.au=Stiglitz%2C+Joseph&rft.au=Zenghelis%2C+Dimitri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Foxrep%2Farticle%2F36%2FSupplement_1%2FS359%2F5832003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-37" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFGarrett-Peltier2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Garrett-Peltier, Heidi (2017-02-01). <a class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S026499931630709X" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Green versus brown: Comparing the employment impacts of energy efficiency, renewable energy, and fossil fuels using an input-output model"</a>. <i>Economic Modelling</i>. <b>61</b>: 439–447. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.econmod.2016.11.012" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.econmod.2016.11.012</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0264-9993" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0264-9993</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Modelling&rft.atitle=Green+versus+brown%3A+Comparing+the+employment+impacts+of+energy+efficiency%2C+renewable+energy%2C+and+fossil+fuels+using+an+input-output+model&rft.volume=61&rft.pages=439-447&rft.date=2017-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.econmod.2016.11.012&rft.issn=0264-9993&rft.aulast=Garrett-Peltier&rft.aufirst=Heidi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS026499931630709X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-38" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.aquatechtrade.com/news/water-treatment/sustainable-water-essential-guide" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Sustainable water: our essential guide to sustainable water resource management solutions & strategies"</a>. <i>www.aquatechtrade.com</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aquatechtrade.com&rft.atitle=Sustainable+water%3A+our+essential+guide+to+sustainable+water+resource+management+solutions+%26+strategies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aquatechtrade.com%2Fnews%2Fwater-treatment%2Fsustainable-water-essential-guide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:7-39" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:7_39-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:7_39-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:7_39-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFFisherReinerSperling2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Fisher, S.; Reiner, M. B.; Sperling, J. (2017). <a class="external text" href="https://login.libproxy2.usc.edu/login?qurl=https://ascelibrary.org%2fdoi%2fpdf%2f10.1061%2f9780784481202.037" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Unreliable Sustainable Infrastructure: Three Transformations to Guide Cities towards Becoming Healthy "Smart Cities"</i></a>. <i>login.libproxy2.usc.edu</i>. pp. 388–397. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1061%2F9780784481202.037" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1061/9780784481202.037</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780784481202" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/9780784481202"><bdi>9780784481202</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unreliable+Sustainable+Infrastructure%3A+Three+Transformations+to+Guide+Cities+towards+Becoming+Healthy+%22Smart+Cities%22&rft.pages=388-397&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1061%2F9780784481202.037&rft.isbn=9780784481202&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Reiner%2C+M.+B.&rft.au=Sperling%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flogin.libproxy2.usc.edu%2Flogin%3Fqurl%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fascelibrary.org%252fdoi%252fpdf%252f10.1061%252f9780784481202.037&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:8-40" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:8_40-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:8_40-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:8_40-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233692728" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Masdar City's Integrated Approach to Sustainability"</a>. <i>ResearchGate</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ResearchGate&rft.atitle=Masdar+City%27s+Integrated+Approach+to+Sustainability&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F233692728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-sustain.rutgers.edu-41" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-sustain.rutgers.edu_41-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-sustain.rutgers.edu_41-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://sustain.rutgers.edu/what_are_sustainable_materials" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"What Are Sustainable Materials? | Center for Sustainable Materials"</a>. <i>sustain.rutgers.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sustain.rutgers.edu&rft.atitle=What+Are+Sustainable+Materials%3F+%7C+Center+for+Sustainable+Materials&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsustain.rutgers.edu%2Fwhat_are_sustainable_materials&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-42" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-42" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://simplicable.com/new/sustainable-materials" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"11 Characteristics of Sustainable Materials"</a>. <i>Simplicable</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Simplicable&rft.atitle=11+Characteristics+of+Sustainable+Materials&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsimplicable.com%2Fnew%2Fsustainable-materials&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-43" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-43" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFGagg2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Gagg, Colin R. (2014-05-01). <a class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1350630714000387" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Cement and concrete as an engineering material: An historic appraisal and case study analysis"</a>. <i>Engineering Failure Analysis</i>. <b>40</b>: 114–140. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.engfailanal.2014.02.004" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.02.004</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1350-6307" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1350-6307</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Engineering+Failure+Analysis&rft.atitle=Cement+and+concrete+as+an+engineering+material%3A+An+historic+appraisal+and+case+study+analysis&rft.volume=40&rft.pages=114-140&rft.date=2014-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.engfailanal.2014.02.004&rft.issn=1350-6307&rft.aulast=Gagg&rft.aufirst=Colin+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS1350630714000387&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-sciencedirect.com-44" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_44-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_44-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/concrete-infrastructure" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Concrete Infrastructure – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"</a>. <i>www.sciencedirect.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sciencedirect.com&rft.atitle=Concrete+Infrastructure+%E2%80%93+an+overview+%7C+ScienceDirect+Topics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Ftopics%2Fengineering%2Fconcrete-infrastructure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-iwbcc.com-45" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-iwbcc.com_45-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-iwbcc.com_45-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-iwbcc.com_45-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.iwbcc.com/why-building-with-concrete-is-not-sustainable/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Why Building With Concrete is not Sustainable"</a>. <i>IWBC</i>. 2019-04-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IWBC&rft.atitle=Why+Building+With+Concrete+is+not+Sustainable&rft.date=2019-04-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iwbcc.com%2Fwhy-building-with-concrete-is-not-sustainable%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Konstantinos_L_2016-46" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-Konstantinos_L_2016_46-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-Konstantinos_L_2016_46-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBasdekiKatsifarakisKatsifarakis2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Basdeki, Aikaterini; Katsifarakis, Lysandros; Katsifarakis, Konstantinos L. (2016-01-01). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.proeng.2016.11.084" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Rain Gardens as Integral Parts of Urban Sewage Systems-a Case Study in Thessaloniki, Greece"</a>. <i>Procedia Engineering</i>. International Conference on Efficient & Sustainable Water Systems Management toward Worth Living Development, 2nd EWaS 2016. <b>162</b>: 426–432. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.proeng.2016.11.084" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.proeng.2016.11.084</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1877-7058" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1877-7058</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Procedia+Engineering&rft.atitle=Rain+Gardens+as+Integral+Parts+of+Urban+Sewage+Systems-a+Case+Study+in+Thessaloniki%2C+Greece&rft.volume=162&rft.pages=426-432&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.proeng.2016.11.084&rft.issn=1877-7058&rft.aulast=Basdeki&rft.aufirst=Aikaterini&rft.au=Katsifarakis%2C+Lysandros&rft.au=Katsifarakis%2C+Konstantinos+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.proeng.2016.11.084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:7b-47" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:7b_47-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:7b_47-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:7b_47-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:7b_47-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:7b_47-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:7b_47-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.cnt.org/publications/the-value-of-green-infrastructure-a-guide-to-recognizing-its-economic-environmental-and" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Value of Green Infrastructure: A Guide to Recognizing Its Economic, Environmental and Social Benefits"</a>. <i>Center for Neighborhood Technology</i>. 2011-01-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Neighborhood+Technology&rft.atitle=The+Value+of+Green+Infrastructure%3A+A+Guide+to+Recognizing+Its+Economic%2C+Environmental+and+Social+Benefits&rft.date=2011-01-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnt.org%2Fpublications%2Fthe-value-of-green-infrastructure-a-guide-to-recognizing-its-economic-environmental-and&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:8b-48" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:8b_48-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:8b_48-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:8b_48-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:8b_48-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLiYeung2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Li, W.C.; Yeung, K.K.A. (2014-06-01). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijsbe.2014.05.001" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"A comprehensive study of green roof performance from environmental perspective"</a>. <i>International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 127–134. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijsbe.2014.05.001" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.ijsbe.2014.05.001</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2212-6090" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2212-6090</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Sustainable+Built+Environment&rft.atitle=A+comprehensive+study+of+green+roof+performance+from+environmental+perspective&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=127-134&rft.date=2014-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijsbe.2014.05.001&rft.issn=2212-6090&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=W.C.&rft.au=Yeung%2C+K.K.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.ijsbe.2014.05.001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-49" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-49" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/using-green-roofs-reduce-heat-islands" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Using Green Roofs to Reduce Heat Islands"</a>. <i>United States Environmental Protection Agency</i>. 2014-06-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.atitle=Using+Green+Roofs+to+Reduce+Heat+Islands&rft.date=2014-06-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fheatislands%2Fusing-green-roofs-reduce-heat-islands&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-50" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-50" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/soakuptherain/soak-rain-permeable-pavement" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Soak Up the Rain: Permeable Pavement"</a>. <i>United States Environmental Protection Agency</i>. 2015-08-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.atitle=Soak+Up+the+Rain%3A+Permeable+Pavement&rft.date=2015-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fsoakuptherain%2Fsoak-rain-permeable-pavement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-51" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-51" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/soakuptherain/soak-rain-permeable-pavement" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Soak Up the Rain: Permeable Pavement"</a>. <i>United States Environmental Protection Agency</i>. 2015-08-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2020-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.atitle=Soak+Up+the+Rain%3A+Permeable+Pavement&rft.date=2015-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fsoakuptherain%2Fsoak-rain-permeable-pavement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:9-52" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:9_52-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:9_52-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:9_52-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:9_52-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:9_52-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:9_52-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFNader2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Nader, Sam (2009-02-01). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.egypro.2009.02.199" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Paths to a low-carbon economy – The Masdar example"</a>. <i>Energy Procedia</i>. Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies 9. <b>1</b> (1): 3951–3958. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.egypro.2009.02.199" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.egypro.2009.02.199</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1876-6102" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1876-6102</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+Procedia&rft.atitle=Paths+to+a+low-carbon+economy+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BThe+Masdar+example&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3951-3958&rft.date=2009-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.egypro.2009.02.199&rft.issn=1876-6102&rft.aulast=Nader&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.egypro.2009.02.199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:10-53" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:10_53-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure#cite_ref-:10_53-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2019-08/documents/energy_conservation_fact_sheet_p100il6t.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: initial; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Wastewater Management Fact Sheet"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>EPA: Office of Water</i>. July 2006.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EPA%3A+Office+of+Water&rft.atitle=Wastewater+Management+Fact+Sheet&rft.date=2006-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fsites%2Fproduction%2Ffiles%2F2019-08%2Fdocuments%2Fenergy_conservation_fact_sheet_p100il6t.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></span></li></ol></div></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Koh, Jae Myong (2018) <i>Green Infrastructure Financing: Institutional Investors, PPPs and Bankable Projects</i>, London: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-71769-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-71769-2">978-3-319-71769-2</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Nurre, Sarah G. "Restoring infrastructure systems: An integrated network design and scheduling (INDS) problem." <i>European Journal of Operational Research</i>. (12/2012), 223 (3), pp. 794–806.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFAscher2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Ascher, Kate; researched by Wendy Marech (2007). <i>The works: anatomy of a city</i> (Reprint ed.). New York: Penguin Press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311270-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311270-9"><bdi>978-0-14-311270-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+works%3A+anatomy+of+a+city&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-14-311270-9&rft.aulast=Ascher&rft.aufirst=Kate%3B+researched+by+Wendy+Marech&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Larry W. Beeferman, "Pension Fund Investment in Infrastructure: A Resource Paper", <i>Capital Matter</i> (Occasional Paper Series), No. 3 December 2008</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">A. Eberhard, "Infrastructure Regulation in Developing Countries", <i>PPIAF Working Paper No. 4</i> (2007) World Bank</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">M. Nicolas J. Firzli and Vincent Bazi, "Infrastructure Investments in an Age of Austerity: The Pension and Sovereign Funds Perspective", published jointly in <i>Revue Analyse Financière</i>, Q4 2011 issue, pp. 34–37 and USAK/JTW July 30, 2011 (online edition)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFHayes2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Hayes, Brian (2005). <i>Infrastructure: the book of everything for the industrial landscape</i> (1st ed.). New York: Norton. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32959-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32959-9"><bdi>978-0-393-32959-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Infrastructure%3A+the+book+of+everything+for+the+industrial+landscape&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-393-32959-9&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFHuler2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Huler, Scott (2010). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ongridplotofland00hule" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position-y: 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 9px; background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>On the grid: a plot of land, an average neighborhood, and the systems that make our world work</i></a></span>. Emmaus, PA: Rodale. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60529-647-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60529-647-0"><bdi>978-1-60529-647-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+grid%3A+a+plot+of+land%2C+an+average+neighborhood%2C+and+the+systems+that+make+our+world+work&rft.place=Emmaus%2C+PA&rft.pub=Rodale&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-60529-647-0&rft.aulast=Huler&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fongridplotofland00hule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Georg Inderst, "Pension Fund Investment in Infrastructure", <i>OECD Working Papers on Insurance and Private Pensions</i>, No. 32 (2009)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFDalakoglou2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dalakoglou, Dimitris (2017). <i>The Road: An Ethnography of (Im)mobility, space and cross-border infrastructures</i>. Manchester: Manchester University Press/ Oxford university Press.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road%3A+An+Ethnography+of+%28Im%29mobility%2C+space+and+cross-border+infrastructures&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press%2F+Oxford+university+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Dalakoglou&rft.aufirst=Dimitris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfrastructure"></span></li></ul><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection" face="sans-serif" style="font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&action=edit&section=38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; display: flow-root; float: right; font-size: 12.32px; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 4px 0px 4px 1em; width: 238px;"><div class="side-box-flex" style="align-items: center; display: flex;"><div class="side-box-image" style="padding: 2px 0px 2px 0.9em; text-align: center;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1376" data-file-width="1024" decoding="async" height="40" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="30" /></span></div><div class="side-box-text plainlist" style="flex: 1 1 0%; padding: 0.25em 0.9em;">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><a class="extiw" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="commons:Category:Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></span>.</div></div></div><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; display: flow-root; float: right; font-size: 12.32px; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 4px 0px 4px 1em; width: 238px;"><div class="side-box-flex" style="align-items: center; display: flex;"><div class="side-box-image" style="padding: 2px 0px 2px 0.9em; text-align: center;"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="512" data-file-width="512" decoding="async" height="40" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="40" /></span></div><div class="side-box-text plainlist" style="flex: 1 1 0%; padding: 0.25em 0.9em;">Look up <i><b><a class="extiw" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="wiktionary:infrastructure">infrastructure</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div></div><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.regulationbodyofknowledge.org/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.nextgenerationinfrastructures.eu/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Next Generation Infrastructures international research programme</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Report Card on America's Infrastructure</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="https://docupedia.de/zg/Laak_infrastructures_v1_en_2021" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Dirk van Laak: <i>Infrastructures</i></a>, version: 1.0, in: Docupedia Zeitgeschichte, 20th may 2021</li></ul><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div aria-labelledby="Infrastructure" class="navbox" role="navigation" style="background-color: #fdfdfd; 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color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.8px;">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</span></p><div id="contentSub" style="background-color: white; color: #54595d; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.76px; line-height: 1.2em; margin: 8px 0px 0px; width: auto;"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_cities&redirect=no" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground cities">Underground cities</a>)</span></div><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom"><br /></span></div><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom"><br /></span></div><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=underground+cities&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&oq=underground++cities+&aqs=chrome..69i57j35i39l2j0i512l7.7759j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8">Apart from the Wikipedia entry reproduced here there are interesting google search listings on this very subject. Also it should be said that future designs of such places would have to take into account climate change underground</a> (see previous blog post in connnection with Chicago plus google listings link Whether we like it or not such places may play a vital means of helping to achieve humanity's survival into the future in relation to climate change... RS<br /></div><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom"><br /></span></div><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom"><br /></span></div><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom"><br /></span></div></div><div class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" id="mw-content-text" lang="en" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-top: 16px;"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;"><br /></div><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taipei_City_Mall_access_2015.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1408" data-file-width="2112" decoding="async" height="134" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Taipei_City_Mall_access_2015.jpg/220px-Taipei_City_Mall_access_2015.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Taipei_City_Mall_access_2015.jpg/330px-Taipei_City_Mall_access_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Taipei_City_Mall_access_2015.jpg/440px-Taipei_City_Mall_access_2015.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="200" /></a><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taipei_City_Mall_access_2015.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><br /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">Part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_City_Mall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taipei City Mall">Taipei City Mall</a>, next to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_Main_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taipei Main Station">Taipei Main Station</a>, an underground station of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Railways_Administration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taiwan Railways Administration">Taiwan Railways</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_High_Speed_Rail" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taiwan High Speed Rail">Taiwan High Speed Rail</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoyuan_Airport_MRT" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taoyuan Airport MRT">Taoyuan Airport MRT</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taipei Metro">Taipei metro</a></figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">An <b>underground city</b> is a series of linked <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranea_(geography)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Subterranea (geography)">subterranean spaces</a> that may provide a defensive refuge; a place for living, working or shopping; a transit system; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mausoleum">mausolea</a>; wine or storage cellars; <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisterns" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cisterns">cisterns</a> or drainage channels; or several of these. Underground cities may be currently active modern creations or they may be historic including ancient sites, some of which may be all or partially open to the public.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Underground cities are especially functional in cities with very cold or hot climates, because they permit activities to be comfortably accessible year round without regard to the weather. Underground cities are similar in nature to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skyway">skyway</a> systems and may include some buildings linked by skyways or above-ground corridors rather than underground.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some cities also have tunnels that have been abandoned.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-statesman_1-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-statesman-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-chicagotribune_2-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-chicagotribune-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sacramento_3-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-sacramento-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Asia">Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="China">China</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: China">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> built an extensive tunnel network called the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_City_(Beijing)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground City (Beijing)">Underground City</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">地下城</span>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">Dìxià Chéng</span></i>) during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet conflict</a>, supposedly covering 85 km<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup>, falling into disuse in the 1970s. It was opened in 2000 to the public and tourists, but closed in 2008 for renovations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CNN1_4-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-CNN1-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> As of 1 July 2009, all "official" remaining entrances appear to be closed.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> has at least 16 different underground networks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The largest underground network is in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhujiang_New_Town" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zhujiang New Town">Zhujiang New Town</a>. It connects the commercial basements of over 35 office towers and malls surrounding the Zhujiang New Town Central Park, and extends to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhujiang_New_Town_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zhujiang New Town station">Zhujiang New Town</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou_Women_and_Children%27s_Medical_Center_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center station">Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangpu_Dadao_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Huangpu Dadao station">Huangpu Dadao</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huacheng_Dadao_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Huacheng Dadao station">Huacheng Dadao</a> metro stations. The mall portion under the Zhujiang New Town Central Park alone totals at least 150,000 square metres (1,610,000 sq ft) of commercial space.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[6]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In addition there are large subterranean retail tunnels that surround several <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guangzhou Metro">Guangzhou Metro</a> stations such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiyu_Xilu_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tiyu Xilu Station">Tiyu Xilu</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhe_Sports_Center_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tianhe Sports Center station">Tianhe Sports Center</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyrs%27_Park_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Martyrs' Park Station">Martyrs' Park</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou_railway_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guangzhou railway station">Guangzhou railway station</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou_East_railway_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guangzhou East railway station">Guangzhou East railway station</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Smaller networks of subterranean retail tunnels surround several <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guangzhou Metro">Guangzhou Metro</a> stations such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Clan_Academy_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chen Clan Academy station">Chen Clan Academy</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiangnan_West_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jiangnan West Station">Jiangnan West</a> (江南新地商业街), <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gongyuanqian_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gongyuanqian Station">Gongyuanqian</a></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Harbin">Harbin</a> has a number of large, multi-level underground shopping areas, originally built for air defense. The largest is at the roundabout intersection of Xida Zhi street and Hongjun street where three levels of markets following streets from four directions meet under the giant snowflake atrium.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangzhou" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a> has an underground mall in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulin_Square" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wulin Square">Wulin Square</a> connected to a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulin_Square_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wulin Square Station">subway station</a> of the same name and nearby office buildings.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[7]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> has an underground mall around <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiekou_station_(Nanjing_Metro)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Xinjiekou station (Nanjing Metro)">Xinjiekou metro station</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qingdao" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qingdao">Qingdao</a> has two small underground shopping areas, one at the head of the Zhanqiao (pier) and one west of the Qingdao guest house.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> has a few underground networks, most notably at People's Square metro station, wherein the line 2 station has a second mezzanine full of shops and Line 1 is connected to a large underground shopping gallery at its south end. Shanghai Science Museum stop on line 2 has a large underground shopping area, known for its imitation goods. Huangpi Road South and Xujiahui stations are directly connected to shopping centers, and the Lujiazui station is connected to the Bank of China tower.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhen" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shenzhen">Shenzhen</a> has quite a few underground shopping malls:<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Link City (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">连城新天地</span>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">連城新天地</span>), an underground shopping plaza connecting <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_and_Exhibition_Center_Station_(Shenzhen)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Convention and Exhibition Center Station (Shenzhen)">Convention and Exhibition Center</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_Park_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shopping Park Station">Shopping Park</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futian_railway_station_(Guangdong)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Futian railway station (Guangdong)">Futian</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangxia_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gangxia station">Gangxia</a> stations with surrounding office buildings. The initial sections of the mall used to be an air-raid shelter. It is currently being expanded to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangxia_North_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gangxia North station">Gangxia North station</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">An underground electronics market connecting <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huaqiang_Road_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Huaqiang Road Station">Huaqiang Road</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huaqiang_North_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Huaqiang North station">Huaqiang North</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huaxin_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Huaxin station">Huaxin</a> stations and the surrounding <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huaqiangbei" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Huaqiangbei">Huaqiangbei</a> electronics markets.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Smaller networks of subterranean retail tunnels surround several <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhen_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shenzhen Metro">Shenzhen Metro</a> stations such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chegongmiao_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chegongmiao Station">Chegongmiao</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laojie_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Laojie Station">Laojie</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Museum_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Science Museum Station">Science Museum</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luohu_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Luohu Station">Luohu</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangbeiling_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Huangbeiling station">Huangbeiling</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_of_the_World_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Window of the World station">Window of the World</a>.</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a> has a number of subterranean retail tunnels surrounding <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wuhan Metro">Wuhan Metro</a> stations such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongshan_Park_station_(Wuhan_Metro)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zhongshan Park station (Wuhan Metro)">Zhongshan Park</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan_Business_District_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wuhan Business District station">Wuhan Business District</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangjiawan_station_(Wuhan_Metro)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wangjiawan station (Wuhan Metro)">Wangjiawan</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qushuilou_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qushuilou station">Qushuilou</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xudong_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Xudong station">Xudong</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangjiadun_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wangjiadun station">Wangjiadun</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongshan_Square_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hongshan Square station">Hongshan Square</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changgang_Road_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Changgang Road station">Changgang Road</a> Stations.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Hong_Kong">Hong Kong</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Hong Kong">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Many <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTR" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="MTR">MTR</a> stations in Hong Kong form extended underground networks connecting to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Building">buildings</a> and at the basement of some major <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_malls" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shopping malls">shopping malls</a> in the area above. The stations themselves house a number of retail shops. Notable examples are the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_station_(MTR)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Central station (MTR)">Central</a>–<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hong Kong station">Hong Kong</a> stations and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsim_Sha_Tsui_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tsim Sha Tsui station">Tsim Sha Tsui</a>–<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Tsim_Sha_Tsui_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="East Tsim Sha Tsui station">East Tsim Sha Tsui</a> stations. Only rarely are there not any shops. Additional underground networks have been proposed for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causeway_Bay" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Causeway Bay">Causeway Bay</a> in 2006 and in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwun_Tong" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kwun Tong">Kwun Tong</a> under Hoi Yuen Road in 2010. As of 2014, studies are underway for underground networks in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsim_Sha_Tsui" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tsim Sha Tsui">Tsim Sha Tsui</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kowloon_Park" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kowloon Park">Kowloon Park</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Park_(Hong_Kong)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Victoria Park (Hong Kong)">Victoria Park</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causeway_Bay" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Causeway Bay">Causeway Bay</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Valley,_Hong_Kong" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Happy Valley, Hong Kong">Happy Valley</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty,_Hong_Kong" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Admiralty, Hong Kong">Admiralty</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wan_Chai" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wan Chai">Wan Chai</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_Park" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hong Kong Park">Hong Kong Park</a>. In 2017, The Development Bureau announced that two underground streets will be constructed, which would connect <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Po_Kong" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="San Po Kong">San Po Kong</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kai_Tak_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kai Tak station">Kai Tak station</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sung_Wong_Toi_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sung Wong Toi station">Sung Wong Toi station</a>.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Iran">Iran</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Iran">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Historical underground cities of Persia include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samen" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Samen">Samen</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nushabad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nushabad">Nushabad</a>, and Kariz.</p><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kish,_Iran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kish, Iran">Kish</a>: an underground city by the name of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kish_Island#Kish_Hidden_Pearl" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kish Island">Hidden Pearl</a> was constructed of roads interlinked 20 meters (66 ft.) under the ground. Shops and restaurants are planned to be built.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>: Tehran has made a series of underground pathways in and around <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vali-e_Asr_Metro_Station&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vali-e Asr Metro Station (page does not exist)">Vali-e Asr Metro Station</a> and is in planning stage to increase commercial activity in newly built buildings in the central part of the city. The priorities for future development are expansion of underground connections around <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haft-e_Tir_Metro_Station&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Haft-e Tir Metro Station (page does not exist)">Haft-e Tir Metro Station</a> and <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meydan-e_Vali-e_Asr_Metro_Station&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Meydan-e Vali-e Asr Metro Station (page does not exist)">Meydan-e Vali-e Asr Metro Station</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>: with the completion of <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imam_Hosein_Metro_Station_(Isfahan)&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Imam Hosein Metro Station (Isfahan) (page does not exist)">Imam Hosein Metro Station</a>, and <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jahan_Nama_Complex&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jahan Nama Complex (page does not exist)">Jahan Nama Complex</a>, and their eventual underground connection, there would be an underground complex of a length of 300 m formed in Isfahan downtown area. Also, not underground per se, with <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imam_Ali_Square&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Imam Ali Square (page does not exist)">Imam Ali Square</a>'s street network being dug underground and a large open space plaza being constructed on the top, the plaza is connected through a series of covered bazaar pathways of a length exceeding 4 km, connecting it to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqsh-e_Jahan_Square" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Naqsh-e Jahan Square">Naqsh-e Jahan Square</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nushabad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nushabad">Nushabad</a>: Nushabad has an underground city that served as a refuge during wars.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Japan">Japan</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shiodome_City_Center_underground.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="960" data-file-width="1280" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shiodome_City_Center_underground.jpg/220px-Shiodome_City_Center_underground.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shiodome_City_Center_underground.jpg/330px-Shiodome_City_Center_underground.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shiodome_City_Center_underground.jpg/440px-Shiodome_City_Center_underground.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiodome_City_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shiodome City Center">Shiodome City Center</a> underground in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minato,_Tokyo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Minato, Tokyo">Minato, Tokyo</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Japan">Japan</a></figcaption></figure><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Osaka">Osaka</a> has enormous underground networks in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umeda" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Umeda">Umeda</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namba" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Namba">Namba</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinsaibashi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shinsaibashi">Shinsaibashi</a> districts, in which Umeda alone includes over 1,200 retail stores and restaurants, as well as subway and intercity rail stations.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> has numerous networks of connecting passages surrounding subway stations that span a few blocks for commuters. Stations such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinjuku_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shinjuku Station">Shinjuku</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibuya_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shibuya Station">Shibuya</a> have underground shopping malls. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinjuku_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shinjuku Station">Shinjuku</a> in particular has a reputation for being so large and complex that even local Japanese get lost there.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> The top five largest underground "cities" (地下街, <i>chikagai</i>) in Japan are all shopping districts:<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tenjin_Chikagai(Tenjin_Underground_City)_-_02.JPG" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1280" data-file-width="1920" decoding="async" height="147" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_02.JPG/220px-Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_02.JPG" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_02.JPG/330px-Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_02.JPG/440px-Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_02.JPG 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">Tenjin Underground City in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%AB%C5%8D-ku,_Fukuoka" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chūō-ku, Fukuoka">Chūō-ku</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuoka" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fukuoka">Fukuoka</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuoka_Prefecture" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fukuoka Prefecture">Fukuoka Prefecture</a>, Japan</figcaption></figure><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crysta_Nagahori&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Crysta Nagahori (page does not exist)">Crysta Nagahori</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%AB%C5%8D-ku,_Osaka" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chūō-ku, Osaka">Chūō-ku, Osaka</a> – 81,765 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup> (880,111 sq ft)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaesu_Chikagai" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Yaesu Chikagai">Yaesu Chikagai</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%AB%C5%8D,_Tokyo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chūō, Tokyo">Chūō, Tokyo</a> – 73,253 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup> (788,489 sq ft)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kawasaki_Azalea&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kawasaki Azalea (page does not exist)">Kawasaki Azalea</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawasaki-ku,_Kawasaki" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki">Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki</a> – 56,704 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup> (610,357 sq ft)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Central_Park_Chikagai&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Central Park Chikagai (page does not exist)">Central Park Chikagai</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naka-ku,_Nagoya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Naka-ku, Nagoya">Naka-ku, Nagoya</a> – 56,370 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup> (606,762 sq ft)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Diamor Osaka in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kita-ku,_Osaka" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kita-ku, Osaka">Kita-ku, Osaka</a> – 42,977 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup> (462,601 sq ft)</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kobe">Kobe</a> has an underground shopping mall called Duo Kobe that link JR West <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dbe_Station_(Hyogo)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kōbe Station (Hyogo)">Kobe Station</a> with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dsoku_K%C5%8Dbe_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kōsoku Kōbe Station">Kōsoku Kōbe Station</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dbe_Rapid_Transit_Railway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kōbe Rapid Transit Railway">Kobe Rapid Transit Railway</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harborland_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Harborland Station">Harborland Station</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe_Municipal_Subway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kobe Municipal Subway">Kobe Municipal Subway</a>. Another such mall, called Metro Kobe, links Kōsoku Kōbe Station with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinkaichi_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shinkaichi Station">Shinkaichi Station</a> located underneath Kobe's old downtown area.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuoka" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fukuoka">Fukuoka</a> has the Tenjin Chikagai <small style="font-size: 11.9px;">(<a class="extiw" href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E7%A5%9E%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E8%A1%97" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ja:天神地下街">ja:天神地下街</a>)</small> underground mall which links <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenjin-Minami_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tenjin-Minami Station">Tenjin-Minami Station</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuoka_City_Subway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fukuoka City Subway">Fukuoka City Subway</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanakuma_Line" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nanakuma Line">Nanakuma Line</a> with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenjin_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tenjin Station">Tenjin Station</a> of Fukuoka City Subway <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%ABk%C5%8D_Line_(Fukuoka_City_Subway)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kūkō Line (Fukuoka City Subway)">Kūkō Line</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nishitetsu_Fukuoka_(Tenjin)_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nishitetsu Fukuoka (Tenjin) Station">Nishitetsu Fukuoka (Tenjin) Station</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nishi-Nippon_Railroad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nishi-Nippon Railroad">Nishi-Nippon Railroad</a>.</li></ul><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tenjin_Chikagai(Tenjin_Underground_City)_-_01.JPG" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1280" data-file-width="1920" decoding="async" height="147" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_01.JPG/220px-Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_01.JPG" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_01.JPG/330px-Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_01.JPG/440px-Tenjin_Chikagai%28Tenjin_Underground_City%29_-_01.JPG 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">Tenjin Underground City in Chūō-ku, Fukuoka, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan</figcaption></figure><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Jordan">Jordan</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Jordan">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> boasts the city of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Petra">Petra</a>—"rose-red city, half as old as time"—carved from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock-cut_architecture" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rock-cut architecture">living rock</a>.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Singapore">Singapore</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Singapore">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Extensive underground networks exist around <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Singapore_MRT_stations" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="List of Singapore MRT stations">most major stations</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_Rapid_Transit_(Singapore)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)">Mass Rapid Transit</a>, such as the one at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffles_Place_MRT_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Raffles Place MRT station">Raffles Place MRT station</a> with direct underground connections to 19 buildings in the busy <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffles_Place" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Raffles Place">Raffles Place</a> area. Expanding the network is the first phase of a new subterranean network linking the station to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Raffles_Quay" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="One Raffles Quay">One Raffles Quay</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_Bay_Financial_Centre" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marina Bay Financial Centre">Marina Bay Financial Centre</a> for a complex underground pedestrian network across the entire downtown area.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CityLink_Mall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CityLink Mall">CityLink Mall</a> offers over 60,000 square feet (5,600 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup>) of underground retail space and connects the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Hall_MRT_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="City Hall MRT station">City Hall MRT station</a> with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suntec_City" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Suntec City">Suntec City</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esplanade_-_Theatres_on_the_Bay" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Esplanade - Theatres on the Bay">Esplanade - Theatres on the Bay</a>, and other developments in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_Centre" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marina Centre">Marina Centre</a> area. It is also linked to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esplanade_MRT_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Esplanade MRT station">Esplanade MRT station</a> on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_MRT_line" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Circle MRT line">Circle MRT line</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchard_Road" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Orchard Road">Orchard Road</a> shopping belt is connected by underground linkways often with commercial space, particularly around the three MRT stations serving the district, namely <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchard_MRT_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Orchard MRT station">Orchard</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_MRT_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Somerset MRT station">Somerset</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhoby_Ghaut_MRT_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dhoby Ghaut MRT station">Dhoby Ghaut</a>. Plans are also in place to link towards Bras Basah Road into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suntec_City" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Suntec City">Suntec City</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugis_Junction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bugis Junction">Bugis Junction</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinatown" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chinatown">Chinatown</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="South_Korea">South Korea</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: South Korea">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Seoul">Seoul</a> has a well-developed underground network. Myeongdong and Hoehyeon underground streets are the most famous; they are connected to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoehyeon_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hoehyeon Station">Hoehyeon Station</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myeongdong_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Myeongdong Station">Myeongdong Station</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">It is planned to build a larger underground city in <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gangnamdaero&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gangnamdaero (page does not exist)">Gangnamdaero</a>, the border between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangnam_District" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gangnam District">Gangnam District</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seocho_District" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Seocho District">Seocho District</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Taiwan">Taiwan</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Taiwan">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_Underground_Market" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taipei Underground Market">Taipei Underground Market</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Near_of_Exit_13,_East_Metro_Mall_20070531.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="2304" data-file-width="3072" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Near_of_Exit_13%2C_East_Metro_Mall_20070531.jpg/220px-Near_of_Exit_13%2C_East_Metro_Mall_20070531.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Near_of_Exit_13%2C_East_Metro_Mall_20070531.jpg/330px-Near_of_Exit_13%2C_East_Metro_Mall_20070531.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Near_of_Exit_13%2C_East_Metro_Mall_20070531.jpg/440px-Near_of_Exit_13%2C_East_Metro_Mall_20070531.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">An underground mall in Taipei connecting two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taipei Metro">Taipei Metro</a> stations</figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> has underground streets connecting two or more metro stations. In addition, there is a large underground shopping mall near the main train station.</p><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Underground streets around <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taipei Station">Taipei Station</a>: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_City_Mall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taipei City Mall">Taipei City Mall</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eslite_Bookstore" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eslite Bookstore">Eslite</a> underground malls, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongshan_Metro_Mall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zhongshan Metro Mall">Zhongshan Metro Mall</a>, etc.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Metro_Mall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="East Metro Mall">East Metro Mall</a>, site between <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongxiao_Fuxing_MRT_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zhongxiao Fuxing MRT station">Zhongxiao Fuxing</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongxiao_Dunhua_MRT_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zhongxiao Dunhua MRT station">Zhongxiao Dunhua</a> metro stations.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Turkey">Turkey</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Turkey">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cappadocia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> contains several historical underground cities carved out of unusual geological formations formed via the eruptions of ancient volcanoes. The cities were initially inhabited by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittites" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>, then later by early <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Christians">Christians</a> as hiding places. They are now archeological and tourist sites but are not generally occupied (see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaymakli_Underground_City" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kaymakli Underground City">Kaymakli Underground City</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derinkuyu_underground_city" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Derinkuyu underground city">Derinkuyu underground city</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96zkonak_Underground_City" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Özkonak Underground City">Özkonak Underground City</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maz%C4%B1_Underground_City" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mazı Underground City">Mazı Underground City</a>). The latest large underground city was discovered in 2007 in Gaziemir, Güzelyurt. It was a stopover on the Silk Road, allowing travelers and their camels to rest in safety underground, in a 'fortress' equivalent to a modern hotel.</li></ul><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Derinkuyu_Underground_City.JPG" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="2592" data-file-width="3456" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Derinkuyu_Underground_City.JPG/220px-Derinkuyu_Underground_City.JPG" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Derinkuyu_Underground_City.JPG/330px-Derinkuyu_Underground_City.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Derinkuyu_Underground_City.JPG/440px-Derinkuyu_Underground_City.JPG 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">A typical view from inside the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derinkuyu_Underground_City" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Derinkuyu Underground City">underground city</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derinkuyu" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Derinkuyu">Derinkuyu</a>, one of the largest underground complexes in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cappadocia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>. There are few artifacts left from the original builders, mainly just large rocks that were used to block the passage for intruders. Most of the "cities" are corridors, but some places there are rooms large enough to live in, and some rooms that have the cross-like shape of a church, which is probably exactly what they were.</figcaption></figure><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> boasts the Roman cisterns, built 2,000 years ago for water storage it is now a tourist attraction.</li></ul><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Australia">Australia</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> has a series of underground shopping malls around the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_Hall_railway_station,_Sydney" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Town Hall railway station, Sydney">Town Hall</a> underground station. The tunnels run south to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Street,_Sydney" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="George Street, Sydney">George Street</a> cinema district, west under the town hall, and north to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitt_Street_Mall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pitt Street Mall">Pitt Street Mall</a> through the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Queen Victoria Building">Queen Victoria Building</a>. The northern branch links Queen Victoria Building with Galleries Victoria, Sydney Central Plaza (which in turn links underground to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westfield_Sydney" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Westfield Sydney">Westfield Sydney</a> and internally above ground to Centrepoint, Imperial Arcade, Skygarden, Glasshouse and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25_Martin_Place" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="25 Martin Place">25 Martin Place</a>). The linked centres run for over 3 km (2 mi). In 2005, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westfield_Corporation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Westfield Corporation">Westfield Corporation</a> submitted a development application to link Sydney Central Plaza underground with 3 other properties on Pitt Street Mall and extend the tunnel network by a further 500 m (1,640 ft) or more.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Perth">Perth</a> has a small network of underground shopping malls running from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Georges_Terrace" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="St Georges Terrace">St Georges Terrace</a> entrance to Trinity Arcade to Murray Street Mall.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The small town of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coober_Pedy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coober Pedy">Coober Pedy</a> in northern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> has numerous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_living" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground living">underground residences</a> and other facilities. The area was and is extensively mined for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Opal">opal</a>, and the settlers lived underground to escape the scorching daytime heat, often exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Europe">Europe</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Bosnia_and_Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Bosnia and Herzegovina">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skenderija" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skenderija">Skenderija</a> is a cultural, sports and trade center located in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarajevo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>. In the area of 70,000 square meters there are multipurpose halls for various sports, concert and cultural venues, and trade areas above ground including square. Underground is a modern shopping center "<i>Privredni grad</i>" (English: <i>Commercial City</i>) with numerous confectionery shops, restaurants, coffee bars and other spaces.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-skenderija-o-nama_11-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-skenderija-o-nama-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-radiosarajevo.ba-skenderija_12-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-radiosarajevo.ba-skenderija-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarajevo_Tunnel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sarajevo Tunnel">Sarajevo Tunnel</a> (Serbo-Croatian: Sarajevski tunel / Сарајевски тунел), also known as Tunel spasa (Тунел спаса, English: <i>Tunnel of salvation</i>) and Tunnel of Hope, was a tunnel constructed between March and June 1993 during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Sarajevo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Siege of Sarajevo">Siege of Sarajevo</a> in the midst of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnian_War" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bosnian War">Bosnian War</a>.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Croatia">Croatia</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Croatia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellars_of_Diocletian%27s_Palace" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cellars of Diocletian's Palace">Cellars of Diocletian's Palace</a>, sometimes referred to as the "basement halls", is a set of substructures, located at the southern end of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian%27s_Palace" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Diocletian's Palace">Diocletian's Palace</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-auto2_13-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-auto2-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> (now the southernmost part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split,_Croatia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Split, Croatia">Split</a> Stari grade), that once held up the private apartments of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_emperor" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-auto2_13-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-auto2-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> and represent one of the best preserved ancient complexes of their kind in the world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-auto_14-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-auto-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[14]</a></sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Finland">Finland</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Finland">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asematunnelin_kompassiaukio.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="2950" data-file-width="3933" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Asematunnelin_kompassiaukio.jpg/220px-Asematunnelin_kompassiaukio.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Asematunnelin_kompassiaukio.jpg/330px-Asematunnelin_kompassiaukio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Asematunnelin_kompassiaukio.jpg/440px-Asematunnelin_kompassiaukio.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">A "compass square" of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asematunneli" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Asematunneli">Asematunneli</a>, an underground <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shopping center">shopping center</a> near the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Central_railway_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Helsinki Central railway station">Helsinki Central railway station</a></figcaption></figure><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a> centre, underground shopping areas cover the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Central_railway_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Helsinki Central railway station">central railway station</a> area including the underground shopping centre <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asematunneli" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Asematunneli">Asematunneli</a>, and two subway stations, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rautatientori_metro_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rautatientori metro station">Rautatientori</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamppi_metro_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kamppi metro station">Kamppi</a>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamppi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kamppi">Kamppi</a> metro station is integrated with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamppi_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kamppi Center">Kamppi Center</a> (55,000 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup> (592,015 sq ft)) long-distance bus terminal, freight depot and internal parking area, all underground. It features a six-storey shopping complex and a central bus terminal for local buses. Together with these, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_(shopping_centre)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Forum (shopping centre)">Forum shopping centre</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokos" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sokos">Sokos</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockmann,_Helsinki_centre" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stockmann, Helsinki centre">Stockmann</a> department stores are all connected together with underground walkways featuring shops and other services.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Three other subway stations in Helsinki have similar, smaller undergrounds: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakaniemi_metro_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hakaniemi metro station">Hakaniemi</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6rn%C3%A4inen_metro_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sörnäinen metro station">Sörnäinen</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Helsinki_metro_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of Helsinki metro station">University of Helsinki</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The master plan of Helsinki's large underground city complex is known to be the only one of its kind in the world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[15]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="France">France</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: France">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Paris">Paris</a>:<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mines_of_Paris" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mines of Paris">mines of Paris</a> are several disconnected networks of more than 300 km (186 mi) of mining tunnels started in the 13th century and dominated by the "large south network" on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rive_Gauche" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rive Gauche">Left Bank</a>, of which 1.7 km (1 mi) was repurposed from 1786 as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Paris" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Catacombs of Paris">Catacombs of Paris</a> ossuary, the final resting place of 6-7 million Parisians.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[17]</a></sup> Other parts of the tunnel network have long been closed off for safety reasons, but the tunnels have served as safe passageways during war and revolution, routes for <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_explorer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Urban explorer">urban explorers</a>, and venues for unauthorized cultural activities.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_D%C3%A9fense" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="La Défense">La Défense</a>, the major business district northwest of the city center built in the 1960s, has an extensive network of commercial passageways under a vast plaza centered on the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gare_de_La_D%C3%A9fense" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gare de La Défense">Gare de La Défense</a> and radiating out to connect with surrounding buildings, notably the large <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Quatre_Temps" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Les Quatre Temps">Les Quatre Temps</a> shopping center and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNIT" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CNIT">CNIT</a>, but enabling access to many buildings of the district.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_des_Halles" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Forum des Halles">Forum des Halles</a> is a partially underground multilevel commercial and shopping center connected to the massive underground transit hub <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatelet-Les-Halles" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chatelet-Les-Halles">Chatelet-Les-Halles</a>. Opened in 1979, passageways extend west under the <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jardin_Nelson_Mandela&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jardin Nelson Mandela (page does not exist)">Jardin Nelson Mandela</a> for several city blocks, and within the fare zone of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Paris Metro">Paris Metro</a>, stretch half a kilometer south to the banks of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Seine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="River Seine">River Seine</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[18]</a></sup></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naours" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Naours">Naours</a>: 33 metres (108 ft) below the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Picardy">Picardy</a> village of Naours (between Doullens and Amiens), the 28 galleries (2,000 metres (6,562 ft) long) of an ancient limestone quarry (exploited since the 3rd century c.e.) have long been used as shelter by the population seeking refuge from invaders. Occupied by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Entente" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> forces during <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="World War I">WWI</a>, and then used as headquarters by the German Army during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="World War II">WWII</a> occupation of France, the galleries are now open to visitors.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arras" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arras">Arras</a>: during <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the French and British Army built a tunnel system (<i>boves</i>) based upon the already existing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Adit">adits</a> from a formerly used <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarry" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quarry">quarry</a>. Scots and Englishmen used the quarry below the quarter Saint-Sauveur and called it "Glasgow", "Manchester" and "Liverpool". The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Army" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New Zealand Army">New Zealand Army</a> (bonded with the British Army) used the quarry for constructing another tunnel system below the quarter Ronville and called it "Wellington", "Auckland" and "Nelson".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup> Soldiers from these armed forces hid in the tunnels for several days. On April 9, 1917, 5:30 am, 24,000 soldiers sortied from there to encounter German troops.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[20]</a></sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Germany">Germany</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>: several buildings on the east side of Friedrichstraße, from Quartier 205 (Friedrichstraße 70) northwards up to Galerie Lafayette are connected to each other. Businesses are on both sides of the underground street so that it appears to be inside a building all the time, even when it crosses Taubenstraße underground.</li></ul><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;">Extensive underground bunkers still exist all throughout the city centre, although they are largely sealed off and closed to the public.</dd></dl><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;">All of the buildings at the large <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charit%C3%A9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Charité">Charité</a> Virchow campus are connected via a system of spacious tunnels. In addition to employee use, particularly during inclement weather, there is also a rudimentary robotic system via which mail and packages are delivered across campus.</dd></dl><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Frankfurt am Main">Frankfurt am Main</a>: underground shopping malls, called 'B-Ebene' in Frankfurt, of considerable size are found at Hauptbahnhof (central station) and Hauptwache.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>: the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungfernstieg_railway_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jungfernstieg railway station">Jungfernstieg</a> and Rathaus subway stations and several entrances are connected by pedestrian tunnels, some of them contain shops. There is a direct access to the Europapassage shopping mall.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Munich">Munich</a>: underground shopping mall at Karlsplatz/Stachus. This combines the underpass that leads to the pedestrian area and the entry to the subway system.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>: there is a large underground shopping mall (Klettpassage) connecting the Hauptbahnhof (central station) with the main shopping street, the Königstraße.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Greece">Greece</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Greece">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> monuments coexist underground and several of these have been discovered and emerged. Monuments such as the Catacombs of St. John and the underground museum of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agora" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Agora">Agora</a> have limited access and many are not permitted to enter even to the locals by the Archaeological Department of the Thessaloniki underground <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metro_(rapid_transit)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Metro (rapid transit)">Metro</a> project.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[21]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Italy">Italy</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Italy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> had <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Catacombs of Rome">a network of catacombs</a>, ancient Jewish and Christian underground burial places near the city.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Naples">Naples</a> has <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beneath_Naples" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Beneath Naples">many chambers and tunnels</a> beneath the city, including channels and reservoirs for water, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_San_Gennaro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Catacombs of San Gennaro">catacombs</a>.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Netherlands">Netherlands</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Netherlands">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In general, many large railway stations house underground hallways featuring shops, restaurants, banks and money exchange offices. A striking example of such stations would be the main hallway of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Centraal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amsterdam Centraal">Amsterdam central station</a>, which connects to the city's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amsterdam Metro">metro system</a>, although due to renovation and re-building it was temporarily (2012–2015) not possible to walk from the subway to the train station without going outside.</p><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a>: originally a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casemate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Casemate">casemate</a>, the <i>kazematten</i> of Maastricht form a 14 km (9 mi) long network of tunnels underneath the western part of the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Maastricht_Kazematten_22-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-Maastricht_Kazematten-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[22]</a></sup> This tunnel network has mainly been used for military purposes. The main construction period of these tunnels lasted from 1575 to 1825.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Maastricht_Kazematten_22-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-Maastricht_Kazematten-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[22]</a></sup> The newest sections of the tunnel network were dug as late as the middle 20th century, built in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> as a shelter for citizens in the event of a nuclear strike on the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[23]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caves_of_Maastricht" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Caves of Maastricht">Caves of Maastricht</a> are a far more extensive, system of tunnels with a length over 200 km (124 mi) and 20,000 individual corridors lies just west of Maastricht; (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Grotten van Maastricht</i>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[24]</a></sup> These man-made 'caves' were used as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marl" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marl">Marl</a> quarries from the 13th century onwards.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup> In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="World War II">World War II</a>, these caves were used to hide large quantities of paintings from the Germans, even including the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Night_Watch" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Night Watch">Nachtwacht</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[26]</a></sup> In 1944, construction started on a large public shelter that could have housed 45,000 persons in these caves. The project never saw its completion due to the liberation of Maastricht in the fall of the same year.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[27]</a></sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Poland">Poland</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Poland">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warszawa_Centralna_railway_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Warszawa Centralna railway station">Warszawa Centralna railway station</a> is connected by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subway_(underpass)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Subway (underpass)">pedestrian tunnels</a> to adjacent rail stations <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warszawa_%C5%9Ar%C3%B3dmie%C5%9Bcie_PKP_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Warszawa Śródmieście PKP station">Warszawa Śródmieście</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warszawa_%C5%9Ar%C3%B3dmie%C5%9Bcie_WKD_railway_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Warszawa Śródmieście WKD railway station">Warszawa WKD</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C5%82ote_Tarasy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Złote Tarasy">Złote Tarasy</a> shopping center, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrum_LIM" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Centrum LIM">Centrum LIM</a> skyscraper.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[28]</a></sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Russia">Russia</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>: "Okhotnyi Ryad" (Охотный Ряд) is a four-level underground shopping mall (29,000 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup> (312,153 sq ft)) linked to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Moscow Metro">Metro</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okhotny_Ryad_(Moscow_Metro)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Okhotny Ryad (Moscow Metro)">station of same name</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metro-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Metro-2">Moscow Metro 2</a> is a purported secret underground metro system in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> built supposedly during (or from) the time of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Spain">Spain</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Spain">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, there is an abandoned underground mall near <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pla%C3%A7a_de_Catalunya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Plaça de Catalunya">Plaça de Catalunya</a> called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avinguda_de_la_Llum" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Avinguda de la Llum">Avinguda de la Llum</a>, closed since 1990, which had originally been part of a more ambitious project to build an underground city under the centre of Barcelona. Also, some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Barcelona Metro">Metro</a> stations or connecting lines in the same station are connected by underground passages over a block in length.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Legend has that the many caves and tunnels in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranean_Toledo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Subterranean Toledo">Subterranean Toledo</a> under the old part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a> were connected and were used by occultists.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sweden">Sweden</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sweden">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">By walking through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a> subway stations and indoor shopping malls it is possible to walk indoor through the central business district, partly underground, from Arsenalsgatan subway entrance (Kungsträdgården station) to Kungsbron (north entrance to Cityterminalen bus terminal), covering a distance of between 1 and 2 kilometres.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Switzerland">Switzerland</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Switzerland">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> contains a large underground shopping centre which also acts to connect separate sections of surface shops.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Gallen" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="St. Gallen">St. Gallen</a>'s main <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hospital">hospital</a> uses several tunnels to connect its buildings, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Ambulance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Air Ambulance">helicopter pad</a>, pharmacies and storage facilities.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich_Hauptbahnhof" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zürich Hauptbahnhof">Zürich Hauptbahnhof</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> has an underground RailCity <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_mall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shopping mall">shopping mall</a> with full access to the station platforms.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Zurich_29-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-Zurich-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[29]</a></sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Ukraine">Ukraine</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Ukraine">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>: an underground concourse extends underneath Khreschatyk Street from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maidan_Nezalezhnosti" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Maidan Nezalezhnosti">Maidan Nezalezhnosti</a> to Ploscha L'va Tolstoho. The concourse connects to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kyiv Metro">Kyiv Metro</a> and to the Globe shopping mall beneath Maidan Nezalezhnosti.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odesa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Odesa">Odesa</a>: a ramified tunnel network made from the former quarries that is famous as <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odesa_Catacombs" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Odesa Catacombs">Odesa Catacombs</a> covers the historical center of Odesa and some suburban areas.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsham" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Corsham">Corsham</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiltshire" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wiltshire">Wiltshire</a>, is the location of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Government_War_Headquarters" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Central Government War Headquarters">Central Government War Headquarters</a>, code name 'Burlington'. Built in the late 1950s in response to the increasing threat of nuclear warfare during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the 35 acres (14 ha) subterranean site was designed to be the main emergency government war headquarters of the UK outside London and safely house up to 4,000 central government personnel in the event of a nuclear strike.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="London">London</a>'s redeveloped docklands <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Wharf_tube_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Canary Wharf tube station">Canary Wharf tube station</a>, adjacent office towers and shopping malls are connected underground. It is also possible to access two stations of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docklands_Light_Railway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Docklands Light Railway">Docklands Light Railway</a> without going outside.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dover">Dover</a> contains a series of interconnecting tunnels, that honeycomb both sides of the Dover Valley, carved into the chalk cliffs. These date from Ancient times at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_Castle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dover Castle">Dover Castle</a> through to Napoleonic, Second and Cold War installations. The Dover Castle complex is the larger, going at least six levels deep and includes a hospital, troops quarters, offices and storage and channel view points. The southern tunnels are mixed between Napoleonic War-era defences (see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_Western_Heights" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dover Western Heights">Dover Western Heights</a>) and Second World War-era defences, with some seafront air raid shelters still used for shop storage today. Many have fallen into disrepair and are now closed to the public, but many are still open.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="London">London</a>: there are extensive rooms, tunnels and chambers known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchill_War_Rooms" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Churchill War Rooms">Churchill War Rooms</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_Citadel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Admiralty Citadel">Admiralty Citadel</a> beneath <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Whitehall">Whitehall</a>, created during World War II, and used by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">There are extensive underground constructions across Britain, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chislehurst_Caves" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chislehurst Caves">Chislehurst Caves</a>, built or repurposed as air-raid shelters during World War II.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>'s old town has extensive rooms, tunnels and chambers beneath some areas; of particular note are the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Vaults" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Edinburgh Vaults">Edinburgh Vaults</a>, where overcrowding led people to construct elaborately interconnected buildings in the vaults of the city's South Bridge.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southport" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southport">Southport</a>, Merseyside, Nevill Street has the remainders of an underground shopping street, which can now only be accessed from the cellars of buildings on the current street, which was raised by one storey from the original level. One end of the underground street ended at the Marine Lake, close to the pier entrance.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williamson%27s_tunnels" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Williamson's tunnels">Williamson's tunnels</a> included the site of an 'underground house' complete with windows (concealed by work for public opening) and an extant and partially excavated 'banqueting hall'.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottingham" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nottingham">Nottingham</a> has <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Caves" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="City of Caves">an extensive network</a> of man-made caves, dating back to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>.</li></ul><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="North_America">North America</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Canada">Canada</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toronto_path.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1944" data-file-width="2592" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Toronto_path.jpg/220px-Toronto_path.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Toronto_path.jpg/330px-Toronto_path.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Toronto_path.jpg/440px-Toronto_path.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(Toronto)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Path (Toronto)">PATH</a> entrance, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, Ontario</figcaption></figure><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The cold-winter northern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_climate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Continental climate">continental climate</a> of much of Canada makes underground pedestrian malls particularly useful in many cities.</p><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Edmonton">Edmonton</a>, Alberta, has a small system of tunnels and above-ground <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skyway">skyways</a> called the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton_Pedway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Edmonton Pedway">Pedway</a> connecting buildings and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton_LRT" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Edmonton LRT">LRT</a> stations of the downtown core.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Calgary" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of Calgary">University of Calgary</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Calgary">Calgary</a>, Alberta, has a small system of tunnels and at-ground and above ground ways. It connects almost all buildings on Campus.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Halifax" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="City of Halifax">Halifax</a>, Nova Scotia (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtown_Halifax_Link" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Downtown Halifax Link">Downtown Halifax Link</a></i>), where no point is more than 10 minutes casual walking distance from any other one.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, Quebec, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_City,_Montreal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground City, Montreal">Underground City</a></i>, or <i>la ville souterraine</i> in French, is the largest underground network in the world. Its 32 km (20 mi) of tunnel cover more than 41 city blocks (about 12 km<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup> (5 sq mi)). Access through the RÉSO can be made to apartment buildings, hotels, offices, banks, and universities, as well as public spaces like retail shops and malls, concert halls, cinemas, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Centre" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bell Centre">Bell Centre</a> hockey arena, museums, seven <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Montreal Metro">metro</a> stations, two train stations (<a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucien-L%27Allier_(AMT)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lucien-L'Allier (AMT)">Lucien-L'Allier</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Station_(Montreal)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Central Station (Montreal)">Gare Centrale</a>), a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminus_Centre-Ville_(AMT)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Terminus Centre-Ville (AMT)">bus terminal</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9seau_de_transport_de_Longueuil" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Réseau de transport de Longueuil">Réseau de transport de Longueuil</a> and other transit authorities), and other areas. It connects 80% of office space and 35% of commercial space in downtown Montreal.<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The network began as a connection between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_Ville_Marie" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Place Ville Marie">Place Ville Marie</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_Hotel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Queen Elizabeth Hotel">Queen Elizabeth Hotel</a> and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gare_Centrale_(Montreal)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gare Centrale (Montreal)">Gare Centrale</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">More than 2,000 shops and 40 cinemas line the passageways. Tourists often visit attractions in the underground city, which is used by an average of half a million Montrealers per day.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Eight <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Metro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Montreal Metro">metro</a> stations link to smaller networks that are not yet part of the central network, such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berri-UQAM_(Montreal_Metro)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Berri-UQAM (Montreal Metro)">Berri UQAM</a> in the eastern part of downtown and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pie-IX_(Montreal_Metro)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pie-IX (Montreal Metro)">Pie-IX</a> which links venues from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_Summer_Olympics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="1976 Summer Olympics">1976 Summer Olympics</a>.</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carleton_University" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carleton University">Carleton University</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>, Ontario, has a 5-kilometre (3.1 mi) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carleton_University#Tunnel_system" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carleton University">tunnel network</a> which connects ten residence buildings with other buildings on its main campus. The city also has an underground concourse at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_de_Ville" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Place de Ville">Place de Ville</a> office complex in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtown_Ottawa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Downtown Ottawa">downtown business district</a>, connecting 4 office buildings containing over 1,000,000 square feet (93,000 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup>) of leasable space, and 2 hotels with 900 rooms combined. There are plans to expand the underground network after the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_Line" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Confederation Line">Confederation Line</a>, a rapid transit line featuring three downtown subway stations, is completed. It is estimated there will be as many as 20 buildings with direct indoor connections to the downtown subway portion, or 4 million square feet of office space, 1,800,000 square feet (170,000 m<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">2</sup>) of retail, 1400 hotel rooms and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa_Convention_Centre" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ottawa Convention Centre">Ottawa Convention Centre</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskatoon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Saskatoon">Saskatoon</a>, Saskatchewan – On the campus of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Saskatchewan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of Saskatchewan">University of Saskatchewan</a> a tunnel system connects several of the buildings on campus, this is augmented with overhead walkways that further extend the network.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador">St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador</a> – At the main campus of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_University_of_Newfoundland" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Memorial University of Newfoundland">Memorial University of Newfoundland</a> are the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUNnels#MUNnel_System" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="MUNnels">MUNnels</a>, a tunnel system, in which all the main buildings are connected, though there are also some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skyway">elevated walkways</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, Ontario ("<a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PATH_(Toronto)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PATH (Toronto)">PATH</a>"), comprises 29 kilometres (18 mi) of walkways and 1,200 shops. It links many important buildings and attractions downtown to six <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Transit_Commission" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Toronto Transit Commission">TTC</a> subway stations. PATH accommodates 100,000 pedestrians daily, and PATH businesses host the world's largest underground sidewalk sale once annually.<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The PATH network in Toronto is the largest underground shopping complex in the world with 371,600 square metres (4,000,000 sq ft).</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Toronto also has a separate, smaller "underground city" connecting several building complexes and two subway stations on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloor_Street" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bloor Street">Bloor Street</a>.</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>, British Columbia, has two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_mall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shopping mall">shopping malls</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Centre" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pacific Centre">Pacific Centre</a> and Vancouver Centre, that are interconnected and extend over three city blocks, containing more than 200 stores that weaves above and below ground level. These malls have metro access at <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granville_Station_(TransLink)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Granville Station (TransLink)">Granville SkyTrain Station</a> on the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo_Line_(TransLink)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Expo Line (TransLink)">Expo Line</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_City_Centre_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vancouver City Centre Station">Vancouver City Centre SkyTrain Station</a> on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_Line" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Canada Line">Canada Line</a>. There are also restricted tunnels and parking garage connections connecting the Pacific Centre structure to Robson Square and the Courthouse building. Other connections exist between SkyTrain stations and surrounding buildings such is the case with the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrard_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Burrard Station">Burrard Station</a> connections to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentall_Centre,_Vancouver" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bentall Centre, Vancouver">Bentall Centre</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Centre_(Vancouver)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Royal Centre (Vancouver)">Royal Centre</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfront_Station_(Vancouver)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Waterfront Station (Vancouver)">Waterfront Station</a>'s links with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_Place" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Canada Place">Canada Place</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_Centre" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sinclair Centre">Sinclair Centre</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnipeg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Winnipeg">Winnipeg</a>, Manitoba, has a smaller (mainly commercial office) area located underground in the downtown core below <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portage_and_Main" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Portage and Main">Portage and Main</a>. Several of the downtown office towers have subterranean entrances to the complex allowing employees and visitors to bypass the downtown traffic and avoid the cold winter temperatures Winnipeg regularly experiences. The system links with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skyway">skyway</a> system known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnipeg_Walkway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Winnipeg Walkway">Winnipeg Walkway</a>. Also the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Manitoba" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of Manitoba">University of Manitoba</a> has tunnels for the students to travel from building to building.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlottetown" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Charlottetown">Charlottetown</a>, Prince Edward Island, has a tiny system. A pedestrian tunnel connects the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_Centre_of_the_Arts" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Confederation Centre of the Arts">Confederation Center of the Arts</a> with the Confederation Court Mall. The mall also connects to The Holman Grand Hotel. The Mall is separated into a main section and a much smaller section connected by an overground walkway. This small section of the mall connects to a 338 spot <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-storey_car_park" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Multi-storey car park">parking garage</a>, which itself connects to the Homburg Financial Building, and has a separate public entry. Apart from the hotel, two additional office buildings are on top and can be assessed through the mall, a building owned by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bank_of_Canada" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Bank of Canada">National Bank</a>, and a building owned by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Development_Bank_of_Canada" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Business Development Bank of Canada">BDC</a>.</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States">United States</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Empire_State_Plaza_concourse.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="632" data-file-width="1075" decoding="async" height="129" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Empire_State_Plaza_concourse.jpg/220px-Empire_State_Plaza_concourse.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Empire_State_Plaza_concourse.jpg/330px-Empire_State_Plaza_concourse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Empire_State_Plaza_concourse.jpg/440px-Empire_State_Plaza_concourse.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">Underground passage of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Plaza" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Empire State Plaza">Empire State Plaza</a>, featuring a collection of large-scale abstract modern art</figcaption></figure><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albany,_New_York" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Albany, New York">Albany</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New York (state)">New York</a>: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Plaza" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Empire State Plaza">Empire State Plaza</a> features an underground city which contains banks, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YMCA" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="YMCA">YMCA</a>, restaurants, several food courts, retailers, a police station, a bus station, and a Visitor's Center. The Plaza connects several government buildings to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Egg,_Albany" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Egg, Albany">the Egg</a> (a state-owned theater), the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Museum" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New York State Museum">New York State Museum</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Library" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New York State Library">New York State Library</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Tower" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Corning Tower">Corning Tower</a>, legislative offices, judicial offices, and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Union_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Times Union Center">Times Union Center</a>. The Empire State Plaza Art Collection consists of 92 large-scale <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Painting">paintings</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sculpture">sculptures</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapestries" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tapestries">tapestries</a> at various locations along the main corridor, and features works from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_School_(art)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New York School (art)">New York School</a> of abstract modern art from the 1960s and 1970s.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[30]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>: the "Underground" represents the original surface level of downtown Atlanta; the present streets are raised roadways (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viaduct" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Viaduct">viaducts</a>) built in the 1920s. The shopping center <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Atlanta" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground Atlanta">Underground Atlanta</a>, taking advantage of the former street-level storefronts, covers six city blocks and includes retail shopping and restaurants. It was begun in 1968 and re-opened in 1989 after a financially forced closure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boise" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Boise">Boise</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>: the downtown sector's Capitol Mall Complex consists of a large system of networked tunnels that connect all the state buildings. The tunnels have walkways and vehicle passageways. The underground area boasts a geothermal power plant, a banking system, extensive dining areas, parking, a dedicated mail room for the Capitol Mall Complex and a fallout shelter. The main hall is decorated with art from local artists that was collected over a thirty-year time frame. This collection is not often seen by the public as access is limited. Recent remodeling of the Idaho State Capitol Building has added new underground wings that are linked to the Capitol Mall. These new wings have offices, meeting rooms, and records storage areas and were designed to support the Idaho legislature when it is in session.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>:<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern_University" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Northeastern University">Northeastern University</a> has a tunnel network linking thirteen buildings in the center of campus.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a> in Allston has a color-coded basement tunnel system open to pedestrian traffic.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Larson_32-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-Larson-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[32]</a></sup></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>: many of the older buildings of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> between Massachusetts Avenue and Ames Street are linked together by underground utility tunnels.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Pedway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chicago Pedway">Chicago Pedway</a> consists of approximately 4 disjointed tunnel systems, the largest covering about 10 blocks, connecting such buildings and transit stations as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metra" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Metra">Metra</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Millennium Station">Millennium Station</a>, the Chicago Cultural Center, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macy%27s" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Macy's">Macy's</a> (former <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Field%27s" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marshall Field's">Marshall Field's</a>) store at State and Randolph, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Transit_Authority" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chicago Transit Authority">Chicago Transit Authority</a>'s State Street and Dearborn Street subway stations, City Hall, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_R._Thompson_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="James R. Thompson Center">James R. Thompson Center</a>, along with few residential buildings including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_(skyscraper)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aqua (skyscraper)">Aqua</a>, Columbus Plaza, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Heritage_at_Millennium_Park" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Heritage at Millennium Park">The Heritage at Millennium Park</a>, the Park Millennium and 200 North Dearborn Apartments.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_City_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tower City Center">Tower City Center</a>, on the public square at the center of downtown Cleveland, houses a shopping mall with a food court, two hotels, and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_City_(RTA_Rapid_Transit_station)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tower City (RTA Rapid Transit station)">Tower City Rapid Transit Station</a>, the central station on RTA's Red, Green, and Blue Lines. The building connects to several office buildings, and also has an enclosed skyway to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_Sports_and_Entertainment_Complex" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex">Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_City,_Arlington,_Virginia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Crystal City, Arlington, Virginia">Crystal City</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>: a residential and commercial area of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlington_County,_Virginia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arlington County, Virginia">Arlington County, Virginia</a> next to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Washington_National_Airport" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport">Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport</a>, Crystal City features an extensive underground city connecting its hotels, office buildings, and apartment towers and is lined with 173 shops, restaurants, banks, medical, and other services.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dallas">Dallas</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Texas">Texas</a>: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Pedestrian_Network" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dallas Pedestrian Network">Dallas Pedestrian Network</a> has a network of tunnels connecting buildings in the downtown area.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dayton, Ohio">Dayton</a>, Ohio: the academic section of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_State_University" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wright State University">Wright State University</a>'s campus contains nearly two miles (3.18 kilometers) of tunnels <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-webapp2.wright.edu_34-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-webapp2.wright.edu-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[34]</a></sup> that link 20 of the 22 buildings. The tunnels were designed to connect the campus without imprinting the surrounding land.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit,_Michigan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Detroit, Michigan">Detroit, Michigan</a>: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher_Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fisher Building">Fisher Building</a>, located in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New Center">New Center</a>, features an underground concourse which connects with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Kahn_Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Albert Kahn Building">Albert Kahn Building</a>, New Center One, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac_Place" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cadillac Place">Cadillac Place</a> (formerly the General Motors Building) via a series of skyways and tunnels.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duluth,_Minnesota" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Duluth, Minnesota">Duluth</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>: the city's downtown sector has an extensive network of skyways and tunnels connecting its buildings, including the Federal Courthouse and Convention Center (DECC).</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havre,_Montana" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Havre, Montana">Havre</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montana" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Montana">Montana</a>: the city has an underground area, called "Havre Beneath the Streets", that operates as a tourist attraction.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[35]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Houston">Houston</a>, Texas: the seven-mile (11 km) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_tunnel_system" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Houston tunnel system">Houston tunnel system</a> is set about twenty feet below Houston's downtown street system and is composed of underground passageways which, with above-ground skywalks, link office towers to hotels, banks, corporate and government offices, restaurants, retail stores, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_Theater_District" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Houston Theater District">Houston Theater District</a>. Only one building, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_Fargo_Plaza_(Houston)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wells Fargo Plaza (Houston)">Wells Fargo Plaza</a>, offers direct access from the street to the Tunnel; otherwise, the Tunnel can only be entered via street-level stairs, escalators, or elevators inside a building connected to it.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine,_California" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Irvine, California">Irvine</a>, California: a network of large tunnels running beneath the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Irvine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of California, Irvine">University of California, Irvine</a> connects many of the campus' major buildings to a central utility plant. These tunnels are only accessible to maintenance staff, although there are also publicly accessible tunnels which intersect the utility tunnels, such as the one that goes between the main Information & Computer Science building and the Engineering Tower.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_City,_Missouri" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kansas City, Missouri">Kansas City</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>: the city's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SubTropolis" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="SubTropolis">SubTropolis</a> is a 55,000,000 square foot (5,060,000 m³), 1,100-acre (4.5 km²) underground business complex running along the Missouri River. The space was originally part of the Bethany Falls limestone mine, and was later repurposed for use as a commercial underground storage facility.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis,_Minnesota" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Minneapolis, Minnesota">Minneapolis</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Paul,_Minnesota" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Saint Paul, Minnesota">Saint Paul</a>, Minnesota: there are three major systems consisting mostly of above-ground skyways in the Twin Cities. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis_Skyway_System" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Minneapolis Skyway System">Minneapolis Skyway System</a> covers approximately 11 miles with 62 skyways. St. Paul's skyway system connects buildings in a 30-block radius in the downtown core. On the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> Minneapolis and St Paul campuses, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher_Way" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gopher Way">Gopher Way</a> connects most buildings and parking structures together using a number of skyway links and tunnels. A system of tunnels connects state office buildings around the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_State_Capitol" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Minnesota State Capitol">Minnesota State Capitol</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup> A series of tunnels also connect the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hennepin_County_Government_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hennepin County Government Center">Hennepin County Government Center</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis_City_Hall" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Minneapolis City Hall">Minneapolis City Hall</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Minnesota" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States District Court for the District of Minnesota">United States District Court for the District of Minnesota</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranean_New_York_City" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Subterranean New York City">New York City</a>, New York: several <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City_Subway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New York City Subway">New York City Subway</a> stations have direct access to one or more buildings. Additionally, most of the lower floor of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rockefeller Center">Rockefeller Center</a> qualifies as an underground city, as it features connections to subways, an extensive underground concourse, building connections, and several restaurants, all below ground. The area around <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Square_%E2%80%93_42nd_Street_(New_York_City_Subway)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Times Square – 42nd Street (New York City Subway)">Times Square</a> and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/42nd_Street_%E2%80%93_Port_Authority_Bus_Terminal_(IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="42nd Street – Port Authority Bus Terminal (IND Eighth Avenue Line)">Port Authority Bus Terminal</a> forms an underground network several blocks in size; much of it is within the Subway's <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fare_control" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fare control">fare control</a>. A series of tunnels connect <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookfield_Place_(New_York_City)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Brookfield Place (New York City)">Brookfield Place (New York City)</a> through the World Trade Center's lower levels, to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulton_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fulton Center">Fulton Center</a>, forming an underground city with several subway stations and many shops and restaurants.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_City,_Oklahoma" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oklahoma City, Oklahoma">Oklahoma City</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_City_Underground" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oklahoma City Underground">Oklahoma City Underground</a> (formerly the Oklahoma City Conncourse) is a tunnel system connecting nearly all of the downtown buildings in a 20-square-block area. It is one of the most extensive all-enclosed pedestrian systems in the U.S., extending three-quarters of a mile and connecting over 30 downtown buildings via tunnels or skyways. The original tunnel link was built in 1931 and the system was extended in the 1970s. It underwent a $2 million renovation in 2006–2007, after which the Conncourse was renamed the Underground.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[37]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-38" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_note-38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[38]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_City,_Philadelphia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Center City, Philadelphia">Center City</a> has several miles of interconnected underground concourses under <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_Street_(Philadelphia)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Market Street (Philadelphia)">Market</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_Street_(Philadelphia)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Broad Street (Philadelphia)">Broad</a>, and <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Locust_Street_(Philadelphia)&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #dd3333; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Locust Street (Philadelphia) (page does not exist)">Locust</a> Streets, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Route_3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pennsylvania Route 3">JFK Boulevard</a>. The system includes nine <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_transit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rapid transit">rapid transit</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_rail" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Regional rail">regional rail</a> stations served by 23 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEPTA" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="SEPTA">SEPTA</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PATCO_Speedline" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PATCO Speedline">PATCO</a> lines, and the lower levels of several shopping centers. It is also connected to the lower levels of many office buildings and several department stores and hotels, as well as the customer service counters of the Municipal Services Building. A branch of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Post_Office" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="US Post Office">US Post Office</a> is located in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburban_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Suburban Station">Suburban Station</a> section of the concourse.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond</a>, Virginia: there are a series of connected tunnels between state government buildings in the city of Richmond. Certain passageways are locked off but a good portion of the tunnels are accessible from buildings. The purpose of the tunnels is not generally known; the two most common explanations are that they were built to allow people to move between buildings in inclement weather or that they were built as part of an emergency evacuation plan.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester,_Minnesota" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rochester, Minnesota">Rochester</a>, Minnesota: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayo_Clinic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mayo Clinic">Mayo Clinic</a>'s buildings in the downtown area are interconnected with tunnels and skyways. Other businesses are along the corridors, including a number of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hotel">hotels</a> that often house clinic patients. It is often called a subway, although there are no underground rails in the city.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester,_Monroe_County,_New_York" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rochester, Monroe County, New York">Rochester</a>, New York: <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazareth_College_(New_York)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nazareth College (New York)">Nazareth College</a> in the southeast portion of Rochester has an extensive underground network of tunnels leading from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dormitory" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dormitory">dormitories</a> to the major buildings on campus. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester_Institute_of_Technology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rochester Institute of Technology">Rochester Institute of Technology</a> has several underground networks connecting dormitories and academic buildings together. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Rochester" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a> has an underground network connecting many of its academic buildings.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Seattle">Seattle</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>: several modern undergrounds and a historical tour exist. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westlake_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Westlake Center">Westlake Center</a> shopping mall and its surrounding department stores have underground entrances to the mezzanine level of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westlake_(Link_station)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Westlake (Link station)">Westlake light rail station</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtown_Seattle_Transit_Tunnel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel">Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel</a>. Another substantial corridor extends from <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Union_Square" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Two Union Square">Two Union Square</a> to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainier_Square" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rainier Square">Rainier Square</a>, with connections to hotels, the 5th Avenue Theatre, and many retail shops along the way. The <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Underground_Tour" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Seattle Underground Tour">Seattle Underground Tour</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_Square,_Seattle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pioneer Square, Seattle">Pioneer Square</a> takes visitors on a humorous guided walk showing the original ground level of many buildings in that area.</li></ul><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a class="mw-file-description" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ShirleysWhiteHouseVicksburg1863.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #3366cc; display: block; overflow-wrap: break-word; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="mw-file-element" data-file-height="1280" data-file-width="1500" decoding="async" height="188" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/ShirleysWhiteHouseVicksburg1863.jpg/220px-ShirleysWhiteHouseVicksburg1863.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/ShirleysWhiteHouseVicksburg1863.jpg/330px-ShirleysWhiteHouseVicksburg1863.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/ShirleysWhiteHouseVicksburg1863.jpg/440px-ShirleysWhiteHouseVicksburg1863.jpg 2x" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); margin: 3px; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><figcaption style="border-bottom-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 1px 1px; caption-side: bottom; display: table-caption; font-size: 12.376px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 0px 6px 6px; text-align: left; word-break: break-word;">Shirley's White House Vicksburg in 1863</figcaption></figure><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicksburg,_Mississippi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vicksburg, Mississippi">Vicksburg</a>, Mississippi: during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Siege of Vicksburg">Siege of Vicksburg</a> in 1863, Union gunboats lobbed over 22,000 shells into the town, destroying nearly all of the town's housing. As a result, over 500 caves were dug into the clay hills surrounding Vicksburg. The Union soldiers later gave the town the nickname of "Prairie Dog Village" due to these caves.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_World" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Walt Disney World">Walt Disney World</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Florida">Florida</a> (southwest of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando,_Florida" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Orlando, Florida">Orlando, Florida</a>) has a network of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_tunnel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Utility tunnel">utility tunnels</a> (the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_utilidor_system" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Disney utilidor system">Disney utilidor system</a>) used by its employees for transportation between venues, rest areas, staff preparation, and first aid. The main system is under the Magic Kingdom theme park. Other tunnels lie underneath Future World at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epcot" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Epcot">Epcot</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_D.C." style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Washington D.C.">Washington D.C.</a>: all of the buildings in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Complex" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States Capitol Complex">United States Capitol Complex</a> are connected by tunnels and underground walkways, which provide easy passage between legislative office buildings, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States Capitol">Capitol</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Visitor_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States Capitol Visitor Center">Capitol Visitor Center</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> in inclement weather. The tunnels connecting office buildings are open to the public, but those connecting to the Capitol require security clearance to use. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol_subway_system" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States Capitol subway system">Small electric tramways</a> run from the Capitol building to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_Senate_Office_Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Russell Senate Office Building">Russell</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirksen_Senate_Office_Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dirksen Senate Office Building">Dirksen</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart_Senate_Office_Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hart Senate Office Building">Hart</a> Senate Office Buildings and to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayburn_House_Office_Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rayburn House Office Building">Rayburn House Office Building</a>. The tunnel between the Capitol and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannon_House_Office_Building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cannon House Office Building">Cannon House Office Building</a> displays winning pieces of artwork from the annual Congressional Art Competition for high school students.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellesley,_Massachusetts" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wellesley, Massachusetts">Wellesley</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>: there is an underground network connecting several buildings at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellesley_College" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wellesley College">Wellesley College</a>.</li></ul><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="South_America">South America</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Argentina">Argentina</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Argentina">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, capital of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, has an extensive number of underground cities in its <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subte" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Subte">Subte</a>. Most stations have small shops, bars and kiosks, while main hubs interconnect through underground pedestrian walkways with railroad stations, governmental buildings, or shopping centres. Some have additional mall-like mezzanine levels, with the Centro <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obelisk_of_Buenos_Aires" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Obelisk of Buenos Aires">Obelisk of Buenos Aires</a> area (three lines, four underground levels), <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estaci%C3%B3n_Retiro" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Estación Retiro">Estación Retiro</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estaci%C3%B3n_Constituci%C3%B3n" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Estación Constitución">Estación Constitución</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estaci%C3%B3n_Once" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Estación Once">Estación Once</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Lacroze_railway_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Federico Lacroze railway station">Federico Lacroze railway station</a> being the most important ones.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Chile">Chile</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Chile">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_de_Chile" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Santiago de Chile">Santiago</a> has some elements of an underground city in its "Metro" subway system. While all stations have a small mezzanine level above the tracks for ticket purchase, some key stations have extensive areas of shops and kiosks in addition. Some stations even have an additional mall-like level between the street and the mezzanine levels.</p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Mexico">Mexico</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Mexico">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanajuato" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guanajuato">Guanajuato</a> city was built over old silver mines, some of which are used as roads. The <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_DF" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mexico DF">Mexico DF</a> metro system has many underground pedestrian walkways connecting stations.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Other parent categories from the same field:</p><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock-cut_architecture" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rock-cut architecture">Rock-cut architecture</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranea_(geography)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Subterranea (geography)">Subterranea (geography)</a>: underground structures</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_living" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground living">Underground living</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_construction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground construction">Underground construction</a></li></ul><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Types of underground spaces and people, and related topics:</p><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant_tribe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ant tribe">Ant tribe</a> – Chinese sociology term</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat_tribe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rat tribe">Rat tribe</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arcology">Arcology</a> – ecological architecture term</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Catacombs">Catacombs</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_of_the_Underworld" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cities of the Underworld">Cities of the Underworld</a></i> documentary television series</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_people" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mole people">Mole people</a> – homeless tunnel dwellers</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pedway">Pedway</a> – elevated or underground walkways</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_transit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rapid transit">Rapid transit</a> (subway)</li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_passage" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Secret passage">Secret passage</a><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnels_in_popular_culture" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tunnels in popular culture">Tunnels in popular culture</a></li></ul></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Skyway">Skyway</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_tunnel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Utility tunnel">Utility tunnel</a></li></ul></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_city&action=edit&section=36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12.6px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns" style="column-width: 30em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><ol class="references" style="counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-parent 0 mw-references 0 list-item 0; font-size: 12.6px; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li id="cite_note-statesman-1" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-statesman_1-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFCapi_Lynn2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Capi Lynn (January 30, 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.statesmanjournal.com/story/opinion/columnists/capi-lynn/2015/01/31/john-ritter-salem-history/22627533/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"From opium dens to bordellos, historian unearths Salem's past"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">December 3,</span>2017</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+opium+dens+to+bordellos%2C+historian+unearths+Salem%27s+past&rft.pub=Statesmanjournal.com&rft.date=2015-01-30&rft.au=Capi+Lynn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statesmanjournal.com%2Fstory%2Fopinion%2Fcolumnists%2Fcapi-lynn%2F2015%2F01%2F31%2Fjohn-ritter-salem-history%2F22627533%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-chicagotribune-2" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-chicagotribune_2-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFLord2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lord, Steve (September 29, 2017). <a class="external text" href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/aurora-beacon-news/news/ct-abn-aurora-vaults-st-0928-20170929-story.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Vault project shines light on underground Aurora"</a>. <i>The Chicago Tribune</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171028094059/http://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/aurora-beacon-news/news/ct-abn-aurora-vaults-st-0928-20170929-story.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on October 28, 2017.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=Vault+project+shines+light+on+underground+Aurora&rft.date=2017-09-29&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fsuburbs%2Faurora-beacon-news%2Fnews%2Fct-abn-aurora-vaults-st-0928-20170929-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-sacramento-3" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-sacramento_3-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFGarvin2003" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Garvin, Cosmo (July 17, 2003). <a class="external text" href="http://www.newsreview.com/sacramento/past-below/content?oid=15424" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The past below"</a>. <i>Sacramento Newsreview</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140208020116/http://www.newsreview.com/sacramento/past-below/content?oid=15424" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on February 8, 2014.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sacramento+Newsreview&rft.atitle=The+past+below&rft.date=2003-07-17&rft.aulast=Garvin&rft.aufirst=Cosmo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsreview.com%2Fsacramento%2Fpast-below%2Fcontent%3Foid%3D15424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-CNN1-4" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-CNN1_4-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFJiang2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Jiang, Steven (February 1, 2008). <a class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/01/30/oly.journal1/index.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Beijing Journal: An underground 'parallel universe'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 14,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Beijing+Journal%3A+An+underground+%27parallel+universe%27&rft.pub=Cable+News+Network&rft.date=2008-02-01&rft.aulast=Jiang&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2008%2FWORLD%2Fasiapcf%2F01%2F30%2Foly.journal1%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-5" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://m.sohu.com/n/476428442/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"广州最全16个地下商场!逛街来这里!衣服便宜又漂亮!-美食频道-手机搜狐"</a>. <i>m.sohu.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">November 9,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=m.sohu.com&rft.atitle=%E5%B9%BF%E5%B7%9E%E6%9C%80%E5%85%A816%E4%B8%AA%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E5%95%86%E5%9C%BA%EF%BC%81%E9%80%9B%E8%A1%97%E6%9D%A5%E8%BF%99%E9%87%8C%EF%BC%81%E8%A1%A3%E6%9C%8D%E4%BE%BF%E5%AE%9C%E5%8F%88%E6%BC%82%E4%BA%AE%EF%BC%81-%E7%BE%8E%E9%A3%9F%E9%A2%91%E9%81%93-%E6%89%8B%E6%9C%BA%E6%90%9C%E7%8B%90&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fm.sohu.com%2Fn%2F476428442%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-6" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.mowgz.com/contact-us" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"联系方式 | 广州花城汇购物中心"</a>. <i>www.mowgz.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">November 9,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mowgz.com&rft.atitle=%E8%81%94%E7%B3%BB%E6%96%B9%E5%BC%8F+%7C+%E5%B9%BF%E5%B7%9E%E8%8A%B1%E5%9F%8E%E6%B1%87%E8%B4%AD%E7%89%A9%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mowgz.com%2Fcontact-us&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-7" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://ori.hangzhou.com.cn/ornews/content/2012-12/28/content_4541276.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"杭州最大的地下商城今天开建 地铁站直通杭州大厦(图) - 杭网原创 - 杭州网"</a>. <i>ori.hangzhou.com.cn</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">December 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ori.hangzhou.com.cn&rft.atitle=%E6%9D%AD%E5%B7%9E%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%A7%E7%9A%84%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E5%95%86%E5%9F%8E%E4%BB%8A%E5%A4%A9%E5%BC%80%E5%BB%BA+%E5%9C%B0%E9%93%81%E7%AB%99%E7%9B%B4%E9%80%9A%E6%9D%AD%E5%B7%9E%E5%A4%A7%E5%8E%A6%EF%BC%88%E5%9B%BE%EF%BC%89+-+%E6%9D%AD%E7%BD%91%E5%8E%9F%E5%88%9B+-+%E6%9D%AD%E5%B7%9E%E7%BD%91&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fori.hangzhou.com.cn%2Fornews%2Fcontent%2F2012-12%2F28%2Fcontent_4541276.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-8" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREF时小咪" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">时小咪. <a class="external text" href="http://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MzI3NTA2MDk0OQ==&mid=2654313509&idx=1&sn=47498cd41767822cb9fc3b6260cc3787&chksm=f0cbbd9fc7bc34898889d6dacf1e1207985f6633a32ec0ac2aa38b75eee93d2d6ba8a71891e1#rd" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"每一个深圳人,都自动携带华强北基因"</a>. <i>Weixin Official Accounts Platform</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">November 9,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Weixin+Official+Accounts+Platform&rft.atitle=%E6%AF%8F%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AA%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E4%BA%BA%EF%BC%8C%E9%83%BD%E8%87%AA%E5%8A%A8%E6%90%BA%E5%B8%A6%E5%8D%8E%E5%BC%BA%E5%8C%97%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0&rft.au=%E6%97%B6%E5%B0%8F%E5%92%AA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmp.weixin.qq.com%2Fs%3F__biz%3DMzI3NTA2MDk0OQ%3D%3D%26mid%3D2654313509%26idx%3D1%26sn%3D47498cd41767822cb9fc3b6260cc3787%26chksm%3Df0cbbd9fc7bc34898889d6dacf1e1207985f6633a32ec0ac2aa38b75eee93d2d6ba8a71891e1%23rd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-9" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.khabaronline.ir/(X(1)S(0uk2gswgejx1axjzleh03jcn))/detail/473009/society/453" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"سال آینده میدان هفت تیر زیرزمینی می شود"</a>. <i>www.khabaronline.ir</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.khabaronline.ir&rft.atitle=%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84+%D8%A2%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87+%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86+%D9%87%D9%81%D8%AA+%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B1+%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C+%D9%85%DB%8C+%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%AF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.khabaronline.ir%2F%28X%281%29S%280uk2gswgejx1axjzleh03jcn%29%29%2Fdetail%2F473009%2Fsociety%2F453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-10" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://allabout-japan.com/en/article/5160/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Never Get Lost in Shinjuku Station Again!"</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Never+Get+Lost+in+Shinjuku+Station+Again%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fallabout-japan.com%2Fen%2Farticle%2F5160%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-skenderija-o-nama-11" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-skenderija-o-nama_11-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.skenderija.ba/index.php/home/centarskenderija-onama" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"O nama"</a>. <i>www.skenderija.ba</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.skenderija.ba&rft.atitle=O+nama&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skenderija.ba%2Findex.php%2Fhome%2Fcentarskenderija-onama&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-radiosarajevo.ba-skenderija-12" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-radiosarajevo.ba-skenderija_12-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://radiosarajevo.ba/metromahala/teme/prije-tacno-50-godina-otvorena-je-skenderija-pogledajte-kako-je-tu-noc-bilo-u-sarajevu/358947#" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Prije tačno 50 godina otvorena Skenderija: Pogledajte kako je tu noć bilo u Sarajevu"</a>. <i>radiosarajevo.ba</i> (in Serbo-Croatian). 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">March 14,</span>2023</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=radiosarajevo.ba&rft.atitle=Prije+ta%C4%8Dno+50+godina+otvorena+Skenderija%3A+Pogledajte+kako+je+tu+no%C4%87+bilo+u+Sarajevu&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fradiosarajevo.ba%2Fmetromahala%2Fteme%2Fprije-tacno-50-godina-otvorena-je-skenderija-pogledajte-kako-je-tu-noc-bilo-u-sarajevu%2F358947%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-auto2-13" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-auto2_13-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-auto2_13-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.absolute-croatia.com/split/attractions/diocletian-palace" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Diocletian's palace basement, Split"</a>. <i>www.absolute-croatia.com</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.absolute-croatia.com&rft.atitle=Diocletian%27s+palace+basement%2C+Split&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.absolute-croatia.com%2Fsplit%2Fattractions%2Fdiocletian-palace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-auto-14" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-auto_14-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://visitsplit.com/en/529/the-substructures" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Split – The Substructures"</a>. <i>visitsplit.com</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=visitsplit.com&rft.atitle=Split+%E2%80%93+The+Substructures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvisitsplit.com%2Fen%2F529%2Fthe-substructures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-15" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.myhelsinki.fi/en/see-and-do/underground-helsinki" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Underground Helsinki"</a>. <i>My Helsinki</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">October 21,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=My+Helsinki&rft.atitle=Underground+Helsinki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.myhelsinki.fi%2Fen%2Fsee-and-do%2Funderground-helsinki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-16" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMillarHawke2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Millar, Lisa; Hawke, Jack (July 22, 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-22/helsinki-underground-tunnel-system-shelter-from-russian-threat/10022486" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Helsinki's sprawling underground tunnel network offers shelter from Russia's potential threat"</a>. <i>ABC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">October 21,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Helsinki%27s+sprawling+underground+tunnel+network+offers+shelter+from+Russia%27s+potential+threat&rft.date=2018-07-22&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft.au=Hawke%2C+Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2018-07-22%2Fhelsinki-underground-tunnel-system-shelter-from-russian-threat%2F10022486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-17" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.parislogue.com/catacombs" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Catacomba</a> parislogue.com<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2022">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span></li><li id="cite_note-18" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://img15.hostingpics.net/pics/565789plancumule2.png" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Image</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2022">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span></li><li id="cite_note-19" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.lavoixdunord.fr/culture-loisirs/notre-tournee-des-visites-souterraines-a-arras-retour-ia0b0n2295600" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Notre tournée des visites souterraines : À Arras, retour au Moyen-Âge dans les boves"</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Notre+tourn%C3%A9e+des+visites+souterraines+%3A+%C3%80+Arras%2C+retour+au+Moyen-%C3%82ge+dans+les+boves&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lavoixdunord.fr%2Fculture-loisirs%2Fnotre-tournee-des-visites-souterraines-a-arras-retour-ia0b0n2295600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-20" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.wegedererinnerung-nordfrankreich.com/die-wege/die-front/arras-der-wellington-steinbruch.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Arras - Der Wellington-Steinbruch- Wege der Erinnerung des Ersten Weltkriegs im Nord-Pas de Calais"</a>. <i>www.wegedererinnerung-nordfrankreich.com</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wegedererinnerung-nordfrankreich.com&rft.atitle=Arras+-+Der+Wellington-Steinbruch-+Wege+der+Erinnerung+des+Ersten+Weltkriegs+im+Nord-Pas+de+Calais&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wegedererinnerung-nordfrankreich.com%2Fdie-wege%2Fdie-front%2Farras-der-wellington-steinbruch.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-21" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120904012857/http://www.makthes.gr/news/reportage/64182" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><bdi lang="el">Πόλος έλξης η υπόγεια Θεσσαλονίκη (English:Underground Thessaloniki is a pole of attraction</bdi></a> (in Greek). October 31, 2010. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.makthes.gr/news/reportage/64182" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on September 4, 2012.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82+%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%BE%CE%B7%CF%82+%CE%B7+%CF%85%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1+%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B7+%28English%3AUnderground+Thessaloniki+is+a+pole+of+attraction&rft.date=2010-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.makthes.gr%2Fnews%2Freportage%2F64182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Maastricht_Kazematten-22" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-Maastricht_Kazematten_22-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-Maastricht_Kazematten_22-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.maastrichtunderground.nl/content.php?id=3" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Maastricht Kazematten"</a>. maastrichtunderground.nl<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 19,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maastricht+Kazematten&rft.pub=maastrichtunderground.nl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maastrichtunderground.nl%2Fcontent.php%3Fid%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-23" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091107010510/http://www.vvv-maastricht.eu/groepsactiviteiten/kazematten_en_schuilkelder.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Kazematten en schuilkelder"</a>. VVV Maastricht. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.vvv-maastricht.eu/groepsactiviteiten/kazematten_en_schuilkelder.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on November 7, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 19,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kazematten+en+schuilkelder&rft.pub=VVV+Maastricht&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vvv-maastricht.eu%2Fgroepsactiviteiten%2Fkazematten_en_schuilkelder.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-24" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.natuurmonumenten.nl/sintpietersberg" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Sint Pietersberg"</a>. Stichting Natuurmonumenten<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 19,</span>2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sint+Pietersberg&rft.pub=Stichting+Natuurmonumenten&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.natuurmonumenten.nl%2Fsintpietersberg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-25" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.maastrichtunderground.nl/content.php?id=14" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Historie grotten"</a>. maastrichtunderground.nl<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 19,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historie+grotten&rft.pub=maastrichtunderground.nl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maastrichtunderground.nl%2Fcontent.php%3Fid%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-26" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.maastricht.nl/maastricht/show/id=62958/framenoid=39732" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Nachtwacht onder mergel"</a>. Municipality Maastricht<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 19,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nachtwacht+onder+mergel&rft.pub=Municipality+Maastricht&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maastricht.nl%2Fmaastricht%2Fshow%2Fid%3D62958%2Fframenoid%3D39732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-27" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.refdag.nl/nieuws/schuilkelder_voor_half_maastricht_1_459474" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Schuilkelder voor half Maastricht"</a>. Reformatorisch Dagblad<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 19,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Schuilkelder+voor+half+Maastricht&rft.pub=Reformatorisch+Dagblad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.refdag.nl%2Fnieuws%2Fschuilkelder_voor_half_maastricht_1_459474&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-28" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.wykop.pl/ramka/325643/podziemne-miasto-w-warszawie/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Podziemne miasto w Warszawie"</a>. <i>wykop.pl</i> (in Polish)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">December 14,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wykop.pl&rft.atitle=Podziemne+miasto+w+Warszawie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wykop.pl%2Framka%2F325643%2Fpodziemne-miasto-w-warszawie%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Zurich-29" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-Zurich_29-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070814101708/http://www.railcity.ch/index/index_zuerich.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Rail City"</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.railcity.ch/index/index_zuerich.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on August 14, 2007.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rail+City&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.railcity.ch%2Findex%2Findex_zuerich.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-30" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.ogs.ny.gov/esp/CT/Art.asp" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"New York State Office of General Services"</a>. <i>www.ogs.ny.gov</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ogs.ny.gov&rft.atitle=New+York+State+Office+of+General+Services&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ogs.ny.gov%2Fesp%2FCT%2FArt.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-31" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFWylie" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wylie, Jeff. <a class="external text" href="http://www.underground-atlanta.com/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Welcome - Underground Atlanta"</a>. <i>www.underground-atlanta.com</i>. Wylie Creative.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.underground-atlanta.com&rft.atitle=Welcome+-+Underground+Atlanta&rft.aulast=Wylie&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.underground-atlanta.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Larson-32" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-Larson_32-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFKeith_Larson2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Keith Larson (November 16, 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.alumni.hbs.edu/stories/Pages/story-bulletin.aspx?num=1698" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The HBS Tunnels"</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+HBS+Tunnels&rft.date=2010-11-16&rft.au=Keith+Larson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.alumni.hbs.edu%2Fstories%2FPages%2Fstory-bulletin.aspx%3Fnum%3D1698&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-33" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.thecrystalcityshops.com/_files/docs/cc-shops-2014-directory-final.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Map/Directory"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Map%2FDirectory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecrystalcityshops.com%2F_files%2Fdocs%2Fcc-shops-2014-directory-final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-webapp2.wright.edu-34" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-webapp2.wright.edu_34-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://webapp2.wright.edu/web1/newsroom/2013/02/13/digging-into-the-history-of-wright-states-tunnels/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Wright State mythbuster: the tunnel system"</a>. <i>Wright State Newsroom</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">October 9,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wright+State+Newsroom&rft.atitle=Wright+State+mythbuster%3A+the+tunnel+system&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebapp2.wright.edu%2Fweb1%2Fnewsroom%2F2013%2F02%2F13%2Fdigging-into-the-history-of-wright-states-tunnels%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-35" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120729112735/http://russell.visitmt.com/listings/9512.HTM" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Montana's Russell Country: Havre Beneath the Streets"</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://russell.visitmt.com/listings/9512.HTM" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on July 29, 2012.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Montana%27s+Russell+Country%3A+Havre+Beneath+the+Streets&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frussell.visitmt.com%2Flistings%2F9512.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-36" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070403193406/http://www.admin.state.mn.us/pmd/maps/tunnels.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Map of Minnesota State Capitol complex"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.admin.state.mn.us/pmd/maps/tunnels.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> on April 3, 2007.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Map+of+Minnesota+State+Capitol+complex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.admin.state.mn.us%2Fpmd%2Fmaps%2Ftunnels.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-37" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://okc.about.com/od/oklahomacityglossary/g/conncourse.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Conncourse or The Underground"</a>. About.com.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Conncourse+or+The+Underground&rft.pub=About.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fokc.about.com%2Fod%2Foklahomacityglossary%2Fg%2Fconncourse.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-38" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city#cite_ref-38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFChambers2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Chambers, Kelley (January 19, 2007). <a class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4182/is_20070119/ai_n17152569" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Downtown OKC's Underground set for completion next month"</a>. <i>The Journal Record</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+Record&rft.atitle=Downtown+OKC%27s+Underground+set+for+completion+next+month&rft.date=2007-01-19&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Kelley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_qn4182%2Fis_20070119%2Fai_n17152569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+city"></span></span></li></ol></div></div><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div 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href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Underground_cities" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Underground cities">Underground cities</a></li><li style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Pedestrian_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Pedestrian infrastructure">Pedestrian infrastructure</a></li><li style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Urban_exploration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Urban exploration">Urban exploration</a></li></ul></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-51744644654305935332023-07-24T04:33:00.004-07:002023-07-24T04:33:43.063-07:00Climate Change Underground<p><span style="color: #4a4a4a;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 22px;"><b>ref Sky News</b></span></span></p><p><span face=""Sky Text", sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #4a4a4a; font-size: 22px; font-weight: 700;"><br /></span></p><p><span face=""Sky Text", sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #4a4a4a; font-size: 22px; font-weight: 700;">Downtown Chicago is "sinking" due to "subsurface heat islands" or underground climate change, US scientists have warned in a study.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;">For the first time, experts at Northwestern University in Illinois have linked the phenomenon to shifting land under urban areas.</p><div aria-hidden="true" class="sdc-site-outbrain sdc-site-outbrain--AR_6" data-component-name="sdc-site-outbrain" data-init="true" data-installation-keys="" data-target="" data-widget-mapping="" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="OUTBRAIN" data-browser="chrome" data-consent-string="" data-consent-version="2" data-dynload="" data-idx="0" data-is-secured="true" data-ob-mark="true" data-ob-template="bskyb" data-os="win32" data-src="https://news.sky.com/story/chicago-underground-climate-change-is-deforming-land-under-buildings-and-things-are-sinking-says-study-12923119" data-widget-id="AR_6" data-widget-placement="" id="outbrain_widget_0" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="ob_box_cont CR_6" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></div></div></div><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;">As the ground heats up, layers of clay also deform and this causes the foundations of buildings and the surrounding land to move excessively and even crack, the scientists said.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;">This could affect the long-term durability of buildings, they claimed</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;">he problem is not confined to <a href="https://news.sky.com/topic/chicago-6065" style="box-sizing: border-box; fill: inherit; font-weight: 700; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px;" target="_blank"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Chicago</strong></a>, as the experts state the "silent hazard" is lurking underneath other cities around the world. <span style="background-color: transparent;">.</span><a href="https://news.sky.com/story/chicago-underground-climate-change-is-deforming-land-under-buildings-and-things-are-sinking-says-study-12923119" style="background-color: transparent;">Read more of the above intro</a></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;"> <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=climate+change+underground&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&oq=&aqs=chrome.2.35i39i362l8...8.5727444j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8">Climate Change Underground/ Google search results</a></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><br /><p></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: content-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px auto 1.5rem; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s; word-break: break-word;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><br /><p></p><main id="main" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #4a4a4a; font-family: "Sky Text", sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="content" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flow-root; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="section-wrap" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--text-color); display: flow-root; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="sdc-site-layout-wrap site-wrap site-wrap-padding" data-type="article" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px auto; max-width: var(--site-width); padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px;"><div class="sdc-site-layout sdc-site-layout--alt2" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 1024px; min-height: 1700px; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 1000px;"><div class="sdc-site-layout__col sdc-site-layout__col1" style="box-sizing: border-box; flex: 1 1 0%; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="site-wrap site-wrap-padding sdc-article-body-width-limiter site-component-vertical-margin" style="box-sizing: content-box; margin-bottom: var(--component-margin); margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; max-width: 700px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: var(--site-gutter); padding-right: var(--site-gutter); padding-top: 0px; transition: padding 0s ease-in-out 0s;"><div class="sdc-article-tags sdc-article-tags--lozenge" data-align="left" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: var(--label-text); font-weight: 700; justify-content: center; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="sdc-article-tags__inner" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="sdc-article-tags__title" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: var(--display-6); margin-bottom: var(--component-gap); margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px;">Related Topics (from Sky)</h3><ul class="sdc-article-tags__list" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 0.5em; justify-content: flex-start; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li class="sdc-article-tags__item" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="sdc-article-tags__link" href="https://news.sky.com/topic/chicago-6065" style="border-radius: 12px; border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; fill: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0.25em 0.8em; text-decoration-line: none; text-transform: capitalize; white-space: nowrap;">Chicago</a></li><li class="sdc-article-tags__item" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="sdc-article-tags__link" href="https://news.sky.com/topic/climate-change-6161" style="border-radius: 12px; border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; fill: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0.25em 0.8em; text-decoration-line: none; text-transform: capitalize; white-space: nowrap;">Climate Change</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></main>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-79464195103751694262023-07-21T06:58:00.006-07:002023-07-21T07:28:38.025-07:00Google listings and links to economic terms, and other "relvant" subjects notably business, finance, banking, management, manufacturing, engineering, terraforming, climate change, and systems theory<p> The following may be of interest RS</p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=economic+terms&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&sxsrf=AB5stBiVviBNUpcrnbX34fl3IBIXgQTTrg:1689946644226&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiGi6zr9Z-AAxXvVkEAHSvFD7cQ0pQJegQIBhAC&biw=1920&bih=969&dpr=1">Economic terms</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=economic+terms&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&sxsrf=AB5stBiVviBNUpcrnbX34fl3IBIXgQTTrg:1689946644226&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiGi6zr9Z-AAxXvVkEAHSvFD7cQ0pQJegQIBhAC&biw=1920&bih=969&dpr=1">Finance terms</a></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=business+terms&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&biw=1920&bih=969&sxsrf=AB5stBhV_J6_4U3SW6kWqo7h2gNyl-QqOg%3A1689946940779&ei=PIu6ZMeYL-SAhbIPkMqu4A4&ved=0ahUKEwjHpuD49p-AAxVkQEEAHRClC-wQ4dUDCA8&oq=business+terms&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiDmJ1c2luZXNzIHRlcm1zMggQABiKBRiRAjIIEAAYigUYkQIyBxAAGIoFGEMyCBAAGIoFGJECMggQABiKBRiRAjIHEAAYigUYQzIFEAAYgAQyBRAAGIAEMgUQABiABDIFEAAYgARIw0VQ2wVY7SpwAngBkAEEmAH3BKABwyuqAQwwLjEwLjUuMS4zLjK4AQzIAQD4AQGoAhPCAgoQABhHGNYEGLADwgIKEAAYigUYsAMYQ8ICBxAjGIoFGCfCAgYQABgWGB7CAgcQIxjqAhgnwgIQEAAYigUY6gIYtAIYQ9gBAcICBBAjGCfCAg4QLhiABBixAxjHARjRA8ICERAuGIAEGLEDGIMBGMcBGNEDwgILEAAYigUYsQMYgwHCAgoQABiABBgUGIcCwgIKEAAYigUYsQMYQ8ICEBAAGIAEGBQYhwIYsQMYgwHCAgsQABiABBixAxiDAcICCxAAGIoFGLEDGJECwgIIEAAYgAQYsQPCAggQABiABBjJA8ICCBAAGIAEGJID4gMEGAAgQYgGAZAGCroGBggBEAEYAQ&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Business terms</a></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=banking+terms+and+definitions&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&biw=1920&bih=969&sxsrf=AB5stBigKTxw7HbZ5LdUYyn3wGTRQGGl5A%3A1689946876377&ei=_Iq6ZISpFtSghbIP84KH2A4&oq=bank+terms&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiCmJhbmsgdGVybXMqAggBMgYQABgHGB4yBhAAGAcYHjIGEAAYBxgeMgYQABgHGB4yBhAAGAcYHjIGEAAYBxgeMgYQABgHGB4yBhAAGAcYHjIGEAAYBxgeMgYQABgHGB5I9Y4BUIwNWPVQcAF4AZABAJgB2w2gAdMgqgEPMC44LjAuMS42LTEuMC4xuAEByAEA-AEBwgIKEAAYRxjWBBiwA8ICChAAGIoFGLADGEPCAgcQIxiwAhgnwgIHEAAYDRiABMICCBAAGIoFGJECwgIKEAAYigUYsQMYQ8ICBxAAGIoFGEPiAwQYACBBiAYBkAYK&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Banking terms</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=Manufacturing+terms&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&biw=1920&bih=969&sxsrf=AB5stBgJyPA8s4yUWK3jUwSJ8HPleIyUwA%3A1689946995545&ei=c4u6ZIjwIIWR8gLp4ofgDw&ved=0ahUKEwjI9e6S95-AAxWFiFwKHWnxAfwQ4dUDCA8&oq=Manufacturing+terms&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiE01hbnVmYWN0dXJpbmcgdGVybXMyBxAAGIoFGEMyBRAAGIAEMgUQABiABDIFEAAYgAQyBRAAGIAEMgYQABgWGB4yBhAAGBYYHjIGEAAYFhgeMgYQABgWGB4yBhAAGBYYHkjJrAFQ-AVYtoIBcBN4AZABBpgBygWgAblgqgEOMS4yNC40LjYuMi42LjK4AQzIAQD4AQGoAhTCAgoQABhHGNYEGLADwgIKEAAYigUYsAMYQ8ICBxAjGIoFGCfCAgcQIxjqAhgnwgIQEAAYigUY6gIYtAIYQ9gBAcICBBAjGCfCAgsQABiABBixAxiDAcICCxAuGIMBGLEDGIAEwgIIEAAYigUYkQLCAhAQABiABBgUGIcCGLEDGIMBwgIREC4YgAQYsQMYgwEYxwEY0QPCAgwQIxiKBRgnGEYY-QHCAg0QLhiDARixAxiKBRhDwgIhEAAYigUYRhj5ARiXBRiMBRjdBBhGGPQDGPUDGPYD2AECwgILEAAYigUYsQMYkQLCAggQABiABBixA8ICDRAuGIoFGLEDGIMBGEPCAg0QABiKBRixAxiDARhDwgIKEAAYgAQYsQMYCsICDRAAGIAEGLEDGIMBGArCAgcQABiABBgKwgILEAAYigUYsQMYgwHCAhwQLhiKBRixAxiDARhDGJcFGNwEGN4EGOAE2AEDwgILEC4YgAQYxwEYrwHCAgoQABiABBgUGIcCwgIIEAAYigUYhgPiAwQYACBBiAYBkAYKugYGCAEQARgBugYGCAIQARgTugYGCAMQARgU&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Manufacturing terms</a></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=terraforming+terms&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&biw=1920&bih=969&sxsrf=AB5stBhNFonFkOhjATiouSB5R3f62WrrGA%3A1689947245954&ei=bYy6ZLDgOZqNhbIPycyBoAE&ved=0ahUKEwjwyqKK-J-AAxWaRkEAHUlmABQQ4dUDCA8&oq=terraforming+terms&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiEnRlcnJhZm9ybWluZyB0ZXJtczIGEAAYFhgeMgYQABgWGB4yBhAAGBYYHjIIEAAYigUYhgMyCBAAGIoFGIYDSJuCAlCOxwFY8_UBcAJ4AZABBJgB1wOgAcMbqgEKMC4xOS4xLjAuMrgBDMgBAPgBAagCFMICChAAGEcY1gQYsAPCAgoQABiKBRiwAxhDwgIHECMY6gIYJ8ICEBAAGIoFGOoCGLQCGEPYAQHCAgQQIxgnwgINEAAYigUYsQMYgwEYQ8ICERAuGIAEGLEDGIMBGMcBGNEDwgILEAAYgAQYsQMYgwHCAgsQLhiKBRixAxiDAcICBxAjGIoFGCfCAgcQABiKBRhDwgIIEAAYigUYkQLCAgcQLhiKBRhDwgIWEC4YigUYQxiXBRjcBBjeBBjgBNgBAsICCBAAGIoFGLEDwgIKEAAYigUYsQMYQ8ICCBAAGIAEGLEDwgIFEAAYgATCAgoQABiABBgUGIcCwgIIEAAYFhgeGArCAggQABgWGB4YD-IDBBgAIEGIBgGQBgq6BgYIARABGAG6BgYIAhABGBQ&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Terraforming terms</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=climate++change+terms&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&biw=1920&bih=969&sxsrf=AB5stBjF506cqLOZxyWKhrB8ZA64wABlTA%3A1689948340430&ei=tJC6ZJf0Gb-ohbIPseOIqA0&ved=0ahUKEwiXnpSU_J-AAxU_VEEAHbExAtUQ4dUDCA8&oq=climate++change+terms&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiFWNsaW1hdGUgIGNoYW5nZSB0ZXJtczIHECMYigUYJzIFEAAYgAQyBhAAGAcYHjIGEAAYBxgeMgYQABgHGB4yBhAAGAcYHjIGEAAYBxgeMgYQABgHGB4yBhAAGAcYHjIGEAAYBxgeSKN7ULEQWJQ3cAZ4AZABAJgBogKgAckKqgEFMS44LjG4AQzIAQD4AQHCAgoQABhHGNYEGLADwgIKEAAYigUYsAMYQ8ICBxAjGLACGCfCAgoQIRigARjDBBgKwgIHEAAYDRiABOIDBBgAIEGIBgGQBgk&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Climate change terms</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=management+terms&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&oq=management+terms&aqs=chrome..69i57j0i512l5j0i22i30l4.6420j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8">Management terms</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=engineering+terms&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&sxsrf=AB5stBhE9i0VeG1Y3J-2t0-p3Lkih5oIQw%3A1689948783644&ei=b5K6ZM7vJoqhhbIPjdq7uAY&ved=0ahUKEwiO47_n_Z-AAxWKUEEAHQ3tDmcQ4dUDCA8&oq=engineering+terms&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiEWVuZ2luZWVyaW5nIHRlcm1zMggQABiKBRiRAjIGEAAYBxgeMgYQABgHGB4yBRAAGIAEMgYQABgHGB4yBhAAGAcYHjIGEAAYBxgeMgYQABgHGB4yBRAAGIAEMgYQABgHGB5I00hQ2gVY_ypwAXgBkAEBmAHtB6AB_zCqARAwLjEzLjEuMy4wLjEuMi4xuAEMyAEA-AEBwgIKEAAYRxjWBBiwA8ICChAAGIoFGLADGEPCAgcQIxiwAhgn4gMEGAAgQYgGAZAGCQ&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Engineering terms</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=systems+theory+terms&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB961&sxsrf=AB5stBipeevxhLHRtGC_9t7zxdgzkLfflA%3A1689949135193&ei=z5O6ZNWqC8eS8gL3l4PICA&ved=0ahUKEwiVzpCP_5-AAxVHiVwKHffLAIkQ4dUDCA8&oq=systems+theory+terms&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiFHN5c3RlbXMgdGhlb3J5IHRlcm1zMggQABiKBRiRAjIFEAAYgAQyBhAAGBYYHjIGEAAYFhgeMgYQABgWGB4yBhAAGBYYHjIIEAAYigUYhgMyCBAAGIoFGIYDMggQABiKBRiGA0jHJVD0Ali_FnABeAGQAQCYAXegAZ4FqgEDMC42uAEMyAEA-AEBwgIKEAAYRxjWBBiwA8ICChAAGIoFGLADGEPCAgcQABiKBRhDwgIFEC4YgATCAgoQABiABBgUGIcCwgIIEAAYFhgeGA_iAwQYACBBiAYBkAYK&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Systems theory terms</a><br /></p><p> </p><p><br /></p><p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-77474795157972730642023-07-07T07:40:00.002-07:002023-07-07T07:40:39.925-07:00Extinction risk from Climate Change<p> <span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.8px;">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</span></p><div id="contentSub" style="background-color: white; color: #54595d; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.76px; line-height: 1.2em; margin: 8px 0px 0px; width: auto;"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div><div class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" id="mw-content-text" lang="en" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-top: 16px;"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">This article is about scientific projections of present and future climate change driving Earth's plant or animal species extinct. For speculation about climate change potentially resulting in human extinction, see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_apocalypse" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate apocalypse">climate apocalypse</a>.</div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Song_2021_rate_relationship.png" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="514" data-file-width="685" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a0/Song_2021_rate_relationship.png/220px-Song_2021_rate_relationship.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a0/Song_2021_rate_relationship.png/330px-Song_2021_rate_relationship.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a0/Song_2021_rate_relationship.png/440px-Song_2021_rate_relationship.png 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Song_2021_rate_relationship.png" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The relationship between the <i>magnitude</i> of climate change (including both large increases and decreases in global temperature) and the extinction rate, over the past 450 million years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Song2021_1-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Song2021-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">There are several plausible pathways that could lead to an increased <b>extinction risk from climate change</b>. This is because every <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Plant">plant</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Animal">animal</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Species">species</a> has evolved to exist within a certain <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_niche" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ecological niche">ecological niche</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pocheville2015_2-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Pocheville2015-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup> and as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">climate change</a> represents the long-term alteration of temperature and average weather patterns,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> it can push climatic conditions outside of the species' niche, which will ultimately render it extinct.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup> Normally, species faced with changing conditions can either adapt in place through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microevolution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Microevolution">microevolution</a> or move to another habitat with suitable conditions. However, the speed of recent climate change is so unprecedented, that even under "mid-range" scenarios of future warming, only 5% of current <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectotherm" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ectotherm">ectotherm</a> locations (a category which includes <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibians" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amphibians">amphibians</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptile" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and all <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>) are within 50 <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Km" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Km">km</a> of a place which could serve as an equally suitable habitat at the end of this century.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Buckley2012_6-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Buckley2012-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[6]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate change also increases both the frequency and intensity of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_weather_event" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extreme weather event">extreme weather events</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IPCC6AR_ExtremeEvents_7-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-IPCC6AR_ExtremeEvents-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[7]</a></sup> which can directly wipe out regional populations of species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Maxwell2018_8-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Maxwell2018-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup> Those species occupying <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coast">coastal</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-lying_island" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Low-lying island">low-lying island</a> habitats can also be rendered extinct by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>; this has already happened with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bramble_Cay_melomys" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bramble Cay melomys">Bramble Cay melomys</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Australia">Australia</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:0-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup> Finally, climate change has been linked with the increased prevalence and global spread of certain diseases affecting wildlife. This includes <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidis" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis">Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</a>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fungus">fungus</a> identified as one of the main drivers of the worldwide <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="1765" data-file-width="2100" decoding="async" height="185" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f4/Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg/220px-Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f4/Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg/330px-Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f4/Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg/440px-Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The impact of three different <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change scenario">climate change scenarios</a> on local diversity and risk of extinction of vertebrate species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Strona2022_11-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Strona2022-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">So far, climate change has not yet been a major contributor to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a>, and nearly all of the irreversible <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> to date has been caused by other anthropogenic pressures such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_loss" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Habitat loss">habitat loss</a> or the introduction of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IPBES_12-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-IPBES-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_13-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:9-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[14]</a></sup> Yet, its effects are certain to become more prevalent in the future. As of 2021, 19% of species on the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List_of_Threatened_Species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN Red List of Threatened Species">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</a> are already being impacted by climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[15]</a></sup> Out of 4000 species analyzed by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a>, half were found to have shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate change. According to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN">IUCN</a>, once a species has lost over half of its geographic range, it is classified as "endangered", which is considered equivalent to a >20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years. If it loses 80% or more of its range, it is considered "critically endangered", and has a <i>very high</i> (over 50%) likelihood of going extinct over the next 10–100 years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> projected that in the future, 9%-14% of the species assessed would be at a very high risk of extinction under 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) of global warming over the preindustrial levels, and more warming means more widespread risk, with 3 °C (5.4 °F) placing 12%-29% at very high risk, and 5 °C (9.0 °F) 15%-48%. In particular, at 3.2 °C (5.8 °F), 15% of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrates" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Invertebrates">invertebrates</a> (including 12% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinator" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a>), 11% of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibians" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amphibians">amphibians</a> and 10% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> would be at a <i>very high</i> risk of extinction, while ~49% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Insect">insects</a>, 44% of plants, and 26% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> would be at a <i>high</i> risk of extinction. In contrast, even the more modest <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Agreement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> goal of limiting warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F) reduces the fraction of invertebrates, amphibians and flowering plants at a <i>very high</i> risk of extinction to below 3%. However, while the more ambitious 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) goal dramatically cuts the proportion of insects, plants, and vertebrates at <i>high</i> risk of extinction to 6%, 4% and 8%, the less ambitious target triples (to 18%) and doubles (8% and 16%) the proportion of respective species at risk.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Causes">Causes</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 302px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Extreme_weather_under_global_warming.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="318" data-file-width="437" decoding="async" height="218" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Extreme_weather_under_global_warming.svg/300px-Extreme_weather_under_global_warming.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Extreme_weather_under_global_warming.svg/450px-Extreme_weather_under_global_warming.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Extreme_weather_under_global_warming.svg/600px-Extreme_weather_under_global_warming.svg.png 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Extreme_weather_under_global_warming.svg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Projections of extreme weather under different levels of global warming.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> has already adversely affected marine and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_ecoregions" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Terrestrial ecoregions">terrestrial ecoregions</a>, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tundra" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tundra">tundras</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cave">caves</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[17]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[18]</a></sup> Consequently, increasing global temperatures have already been pushing some species out of their habitats for decades.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">When the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Fourth Assessment Report">IPCC Fourth Assessment Report</a> was published in 2007, expert assessments concluded that over the last three decades, human-induced warming had likely had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[20]</a></sup> and that regional temperature trends had already affected species and ecosystems around the world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[21]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[22]</a></sup> By the time of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sixth Assessment Report">Sixth Assessment Report</a>, it was found that for all species for which long-term records are available, half have shifted their ranges poleward (and/or upward for mountain species), while two-thirds have had their spring events occur earlier.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Many of the species at risk are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> fauna such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Polar bear">polar bears</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[23]</a></sup> In the Arctic, the waters of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Bay" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a> are ice-free for three weeks longer than they were thirty years ago, affecting polar bears, which prefer to hunt on sea ice.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[24]</a></sup> Species that rely on cold weather conditions such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrfalcon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gyrfalcon">gyrfalcons</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowy_owl" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Snowy owl">snowy owls</a> that prey on lemmings that use the cold winter to their advantage may be negatively affected.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[26]</a></sup> Climate change is also leading to a mismatch between the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_camouflage" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Snow camouflage">snow camouflage</a> of arctic animals such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowshoe_hare" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Snowshoe hare">snowshoe hares</a> with the increasingly snow-free landscape.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[27]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Then, many species of freshwater and saltwater plants and animals are dependent on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Glacier">glacier</a>-fed waters to ensure a cold water habitat that they have adapted to. Some species of freshwater fish need cold water to survive and to reproduce, and this is especially true with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salmon">salmon</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutthroat_trout" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cutthroat trout">cutthroat trout</a>. Reduced glacier runoff can lead to insufficient stream flow to allow these species to thrive. Ocean <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krill" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Krill">krill</a>, a cornerstone species, prefer cold water and are the primary food source for aquatic mammals such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_whale" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Blue whale">blue whale</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[28]</a></sup> Marine invertebrates achieve peak growth at the temperatures they have adapted to, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poikilotherm" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Poikilotherm">cold-blooded</a> animals found at high <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Latitude">latitudes</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altitude" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Altitude">altitudes</a> generally grow faster to compensate for the short growing season.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[29]</a></sup> Warmer-than-ideal conditions result in higher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> and consequent reductions in body size despite increased foraging, which in turn elevates the risk of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Predation">predation</a>. Indeed, even a slight increase in temperature during development impairs growth efficiency and survival rate in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow_trout" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rainbow trout">rainbow trout</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[30]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 282px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eagle_River_8593.JPG" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="2848" data-file-width="4272" decoding="async" height="187" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Eagle_River_8593.JPG/280px-Eagle_River_8593.JPG" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Eagle_River_8593.JPG/420px-Eagle_River_8593.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Eagle_River_8593.JPG/560px-Eagle_River_8593.JPG 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eagle_River_8593.JPG" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_River_(Cook_Inlet)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eagle River (Cook Inlet)">Eagle River</a> in central Alaska, home to various indigenous freshwater species.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Species of fish living in cold or cool water can see a reduction in population of up to 50% in the majority of U.S. freshwater streams, according to most climate change models.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:42_31-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:42-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup> The increase in metabolic demands due to higher water temperatures, in combination with decreasing amounts of food will be the main contributors to their decline.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:42_31-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:42-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup> Additionally, many fish species (such as salmon) use seasonal water levels of streams as a means of reproducing, typically breeding when water flow is high and migrating to the ocean after spawning.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:42_31-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:42-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup> Because snowfall is expected to be reduced due to climate change, water runoff is expected to decrease which leads to lower flowing streams, affecting the spawning of millions of salmon.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:42_31-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:42-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup> To add to this, rising seas will begin to flood coastal river systems, converting them from fresh water habitats to saline environments where indigenous species will likely perish. In southeast Alaska, the sea rises by 3.96 cm/year, redepositing sediment in various river channels and bringing salt water inland.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:42_31-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:42-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup> This rise in sea level not only contaminates streams and rivers with saline water, but also the reservoirs they are connected to, where species such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sockeye_salmon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sockeye salmon">sockeye salmon</a> live. Although this species of Salmon can survive in both salt and fresh water, the loss of a body of fresh water stops them from reproducing in the spring, as the spawning process requires fresh water.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:42_31-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:42-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Furthermore, climate change may disrupt ecological partnerships among interacting species, via changes on behaviour and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Phenology">phenology</a>, or via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_niche" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ecological niche">climate niche</a> mismatch.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2020)_32-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2020)-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[32]</a></sup> The disruption of species-species associations is a potential consequence of climate-driven movements of each individual species towards opposite directions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2021)_34-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2021)-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[34]</a></sup> Climate change may, thus, lead to another extinction, more silent and mostly overlooked: the extinction of species' interactions. As a consequence of the spatial decoupling of species-species associations, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_service" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> derived from biotic interactions are also at risk from climate niche mismatch.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2020)_32-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2020)-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[32]</a></sup> Whole ecosystem disruptions will occur earlier under more intense climate change: under the high-emissions <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP8.5</a> scenario, ecosystems in the tropical oceans would be the first to experience abrupt disruption before 2030, with tropical forests and polar environments following by 2050. In total, 15% of ecological assemblages would have over 20% of their species abruptly disrupted if as warming eventually reaches 4 °C (7.2 °F); in contrast, this would happen to fewer than 2% if the warming were to stay below 2 °C (3.6 °F).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[35]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Extinctions_attributed_to_climate_change">Extinctions attributed to climate change</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Extinctions attributed to climate change">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Besides <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bramble_Cay_melomys" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bramble Cay melomys">Bramble Cay melomys</a> (see below), few recorded species extinctions are thought to have been caused by climate change, as opposed to the other drivers of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a>. For example, only 20 of 864 species extinctions are considered by the IUCN to potentially be the result of climate change, either wholly or in part, and the evidence linking them to climate change is typically considered as weak or insubstantial.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_13-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:9-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> These species’ extinctions are listed in the table below.</p><table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible jquery-tablesorter mw-made-collapsible" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: #202122; font-size: 14px; margin: 1em 0px;"><caption style="font-weight: bold;">Causes of global extinction for 20 species whose declines were possibly linked to climate change (data from IUCN)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_13-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:9-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> <button aria-expanded="true" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default" style="appearance: none; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; cursor: pointer; float: none; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0.2em; user-select: none;" tabindex="0" type="button"><span class="mw-collapsible-text" style="color: #3366cc;">hide</span></button></caption><thead><tr><th class="headerSort" role="columnheader button" style="background-color: #eaecf0; background-image: url("/w/resources/src/jquery.tablesorter.styles/images/sort_both.svg?0e440"); background-position: right center; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.4em; text-align: center;" tabindex="0" title="Sort ascending">Higher taxon</th><th class="headerSort" role="columnheader button" style="background-color: #eaecf0; background-image: url("/w/resources/src/jquery.tablesorter.styles/images/sort_both.svg?0e440"); background-position: right center; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.4em; text-align: center;" tabindex="0" title="Sort ascending">Species</th><th class="headerSort" role="columnheader button" style="background-color: #eaecf0; background-image: url("/w/resources/src/jquery.tablesorter.styles/images/sort_both.svg?0e440"); background-position: right center; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.4em; text-align: center;" tabindex="0" title="Sort ascending">Possible link to climate change</th><th class="headerSort" role="columnheader button" style="background-color: #eaecf0; background-image: url("/w/resources/src/jquery.tablesorter.styles/images/sort_both.svg?0e440"); background-position: right center; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.4em; text-align: center;" tabindex="0" title="Sort ascending">Hypothesized causes of extinction</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Snail</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Graecoanatolica macedonica</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Drought</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Loss of aquatic habitat due to drought</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Snail</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Pachnodus velutinus</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Drought</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Habitat degradation, drought related to climate change, hybridization</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Snail</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Pseudamnicola desertorum</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Possibly related to drought</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Loss of aquatic habitat</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Snail</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Rhachistia aldabrae</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Drought</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Drought related to recent climate change</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Fish*<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[Note 1]</a></sup></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Acanthobrama telavivensis</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Drought</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Loss of aquatic habitat</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Fish</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Tristramella magdelainae</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Drought</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Loss of aquatic habitat due to drought, pollution and water extraction</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Frog*</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Anaxyrus (Bufo) baxteri</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid fungus</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Frog</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Atelopus ignescens</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Synergistic effects of chytrid and climate change</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Frog</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Atelopus longirostris</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid, climate change, pollution, and habitat loss</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Frog</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Craugastor chrysozetetes</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Habitat modification and chytrid</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Frog</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Craugastor escoces</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid, possibly associated with climate change</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Frog</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Incilius (Bufo) holdridgei</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid, possibly associated with climate change</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Frog</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Incilius (Bufo) periglenes</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Chytrid</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Global warming, chytrid, and pollution</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Bird</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Fregilupus varius</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Drought</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Introduced disease, over-harvesting, forest fires, drought, deforestation</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Bird</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Gallirallus wakensis</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Storms</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Overharvesting and occasional inundation of island due to storms</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Bird</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Moho braccatus</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Storms</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Habitat destruction, introduced predators and diseases, and hurricanes</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Bird</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Myadestes myadestinus</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Storms</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Habitat destruction, introduced predators and diseases, and hurricanes</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Bird</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Porzana palmeri</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Storms</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Habitat destruction and predation by introduced species, storms</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Bird</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Psephotus pulcherrimus</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Drought</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Drought and overgrazing reduced food supply, other factors include introduced species, disease, habitat destruction, and overharvesting</td></tr><tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Rodent</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><i>Geocapromys thoracatus</i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Storm</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); padding: 0.2em 0.4em;">Introduced predators, storm</td></tr></tbody><tfoot></tfoot></table><div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12.6px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references" style="counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-parent 0 mw-references 0 list-item 0; font-size: 12.6px; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li id="cite_note-36" style="counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Acanthobrama telavivensis</i> and <i>Anaxyrus (Bufo) baxteri</i> are extinct in the wild rather than globally extinct.</span></li></ol></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">However, there is abundant evidence for local extinctions from contractions at the warm edges of species' ranges.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_13-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:9-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> Hundreds of animal species have been documented to shift their range (usually polewards and upwards) as a signal of biotic change due to climate warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_13-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:9-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> Warm-edge populations tend to be the most logical place to search for causes of climate-related extinctions since these species may already be at the limits of their climatic tolerances.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_13-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:9-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> This pattern of warm-edge contraction provides indications that many local extinctions have already occurred as a result of climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:9_13-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:9-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> Further, an Australian review of 519 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_study" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Observational study">observational studies</a> over 74 years found more than 100 cases where extreme weather events reduced animal species abundance by over 25%, including 31 cases of complete local <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extirpation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extirpation">extirpation</a>. 60% of the studies followed the ecosystem for over a year, and populations did not recover to pre-disturbance levels in 38% of the cases.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Maxwell2018_8-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Maxwell2018-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Extinction_risk_estimates">Extinction risk estimates</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Extinction risk estimates">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_estimates">Early estimates</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Early estimates">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="854" data-file-width="576" decoding="async" height="326" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7a/Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png/220px-Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7a/Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png/330px-Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7a/Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png/440px-Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Relative to now, key areas for wildlife will retain less of their biodiversity under 2 °C (3.6 °F) of global warming, and even less under 4.5 °C (8.1 °F).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Warren2018a-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The first major attempt to estimate the impact of climate change on generalized species' extinction risks was published in the journal <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> in 2004. It suggested that between 15% and 37% of 1103 endemic or near-endemic known plant and animal species around the world would be "committed to extinction" by 2050, as their habitat will no longer be able to support their survival range by then.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Thomas2004_38-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Thomas2004-38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[37]</a></sup> However, there was limited knowledge at the time about the species' average ability to disperse or otherwise adapt in response to climate change, and about the minimum average area needed for their persistence, which limited the reliability of their estimate in the eyes of the scientific community.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Araujo2004_39-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Araujo2004-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[38]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[39]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pmid15233130_41-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-pmid15233130-41" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pmid15237466_42-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-pmid15237466-42" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[41]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-43" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-43" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[42]</a></sup> In response, another 2004 paper found that different, yet still plausible assumptions about those factors could result in as few as 5.6% or as many as 78.6% of those 1103 species being committed to extinction,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Thuiller2004_44-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Thuiller2004-44" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[43]</a></sup> although this was disputed by the original authors.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[44]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Between 2005 and 2011, 74 studies analyzing the impact of climate change on various species' extinction risk were published. A 2011 review of those studies found that on average, they projected the loss of 11.2% of species by 2100. However, the average of predictions based on the extrapolation of observed responses was 14.7%, while the model-based estimates were at 6.7%. Further, when using <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> criteria, 7.6% of species would become <i>threatened</i> based on model predictions, yet 31.7% based on extrapolated observations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup> The following year, this mismatch between models and observations was primarily attributed to the models failing to properly account for different rates of species relocation and for the emerging competition among species, thus causing them to underestimate extinction risk.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[46]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2018 study from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_East_Anglia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of East Anglia">University of East Anglia</a> team analyzed the impacts of 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 4.5 °C (8.1 °F) of warming on 80,000 plant and animal species in 35 of the world's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> hotspots. It found that these areas could lose up to 25% and 50% of their species, respectively: they may or may not be able to survive outside of them. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> alone would lose 60% of its species under 4.5 °C (8.1 °F), while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fynbos" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fynbos">Fynbos</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Cape" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Western Cape">Western Cape</a> egion of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> would lose a third of its species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Warren2018a-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-48" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="All_species">All species</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: All species">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2019, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Science-Policy_Platform_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services">Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a> (IPBES) released the summary of its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Assessment_Report_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services">Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a>. The report estimated that there are 8 million animal and plant species, including 5.5 million insect species. It found that one million species, including 40 percent of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, almost a third of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reef" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Reef">reef</a>-building <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corals" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Corals">corals</a>, more than a third of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_mammal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine mammal">marine mammals</a>, and 10 percent of all <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insects" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Insects">insects</a> are threatened with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinction">extinction</a> due to five main stressors. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Land use">land use</a> change and sea use change was considered the most important stressor, followed by direct exploitation of organisms (i.e. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfishing" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>). Climate change ranked third, followed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pollution">pollution</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>. The report concluded that global warming of 2 °C (3.6 °F) over the preindustrial levels would threaten an estimated 5% of all the Earth's species with extinction even in the absence of the other four factors, while if the warming reached 4.3 °C (7.7 °F), 16% of the Earth's species would be threatened with extinction. Finally, even the lower warming levels of 1.5–2 °C (2.7–3.6 °F) would "profoundly" reduce geographical ranges of the majority of the world's species, thus making them more vulnerable then they would have been otherwise.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IPBES_12-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-IPBES-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2020, a paper studied 538 plant and animal species from around the world and how they responded to rising temperatures. From that sample, they estimated that 16% of all species could go extinct by 2070 under the "moderate" <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change scenario">climate change scenario</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway#RCP_4.5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP4.5</a>, but it could be one-third under RCP8.5, the scenario of continually increasing emissions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-49" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[48]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-50" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-50" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[49]</a></sup> This finding was later cited in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_FAQ2.1_51-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_FAQ2.1-51" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[50]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">An August 2021 paper found that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_event#The_%22Big_Five%22_mass_extinctions" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinction event">The "Big Five" mass extinctions</a> were associated with a warming of around 5.2 °C (9.4 °F) and estimated that this level of warming over the preindustrial occurring today would also result in a mass extinction event of the same magnitude (~75% of marine animals wiped out).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Song2021_1-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Song2021-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup> The following year, this was disputed by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tohoku_University" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tohoku University">Tohoku University</a> Earth science scholar Kunio Kaiho. Based on his reanalysis of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rock</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_record" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Geological record">record</a>, he estimated that the loss of over 60% of marine species and over 35% of marine <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genera" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genera">genera</a> was correlated to a >7 °C (13 °F) global cooling and a 7–9 °C (13–16 °F) global warming, while for the terrestrial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrapod" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>, the same losses would be seen under ~7 °C (13 °F) of global cooling or warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[51]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="491" data-file-width="685" decoding="async" height="158" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/65/Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png/220px-Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/65/Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png/330px-Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/65/Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png/440px-Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The comparison between great historical mass extinctions, current extent of extinctions, and the possible extent of future extinctions driven by a plausible scenario of climate change, with and without nuclear war.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kaiho2022_53-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Kaiho2022-53" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Kaiho's follow-up paper estimated that under what he considered the most likely scenario of climate change, with 3 °C (5.4 °F) of warming by 2100 and 3.8 °C (6.8 °F) by 2500 (based on the average of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathways</a> 4.5 and 6.0), would result in 8% marine species extinctions, 16–20% terrestrial animal species extinctions, and a combined average of 12–14% animal species extinctions. This was defined by the paper as a <i>minor</i> mass extinction, comparable to the end-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalupian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guadalupian">Guadalupian</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>–<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> boundary events. It also cautioned that warming needed to be kept below 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) to prevent an extinction of >10% of animal species. Finally, it estimated that a <i>minor</i> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_war" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nuclear war">nuclear war</a> (defined as a nuclear exchange between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="India">India</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> or an event of equivalent magnitude) would cause extinctions of 10–20% of species on its own, while a <i>major</i> nuclear war (defined as a nuclear exchange between <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Russia">Russia</a>) would cause the extinctions of 40-50% species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kaiho2022_53-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Kaiho2022-53" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In July 2022, a survey of 3331 biodiversity experts estimated that since the year 1500, around 30% (between 16% and 50%) of all species have been threatened with extinction - including the species which had already gone extinct. With regards to climate change, the experts estimated that 2 °C (3.6 °F) threatens or drives to extinction about 25% of the species, although their estimates ranged from 15% to 40%. When asked about 5 °C (9.0 °F) warming, they believed it would threaten or drive into extinction 50% of the species, with the range between 32 and 70%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Isbell2022_54-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Isbell2022-54" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[53]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">February 2022 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> included <i>median</i> and <i>maximum</i> estimates of the percentage of species at high risk of extinction for every level of warming, with the maximum estimates increasing much more than the medians. For instance, for 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), the median was 9% and the maximum 14%, for 2 °C (3.6 °F) the median was 10% and the maximum 18%, for 3 °C (5.4 °F) the median was 12% and the maximum 29%, for 4 °C (7.2 °F) the median was 13% and the maximum 39%, and for 5 °C (9.0 °F) the median was 15% but the maximum 48%) at 5 °C.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Vertebrates">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="1717" data-file-width="2100" decoding="async" height="180" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/37/Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg/220px-Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/37/Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg/330px-Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/37/Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg/440px-Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The added impact of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> species coextinctions under three <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Strona2022_11-1" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Strona2022-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2013 paper looked at 12 900 islands in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> which host over 3000 vertebrates, and how they would be affected by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> of 1, 3 and 6 meters (with the last two levels not anticipated until after this century). Depending on the extent of sea level rise, 15–62% of islands studied would be completely underwater, and 19–24% will lose 50–99% of their area. This was correlated with the total habitat loss for 37 species under 1 meter of sea level rise, and for 118 species under 3 meters.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-55" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-55" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[54]</a></sup> A subsequent paper found that under <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP8.5</a>, the scenario of continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions, numerous vulnerable and endangered vertebrate species living on the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-lying_islands" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Low-lying islands">low-lying islands</a> in the Pacific Ocean would be threatened by high waves at the end of the century, with the risk substantially reduced under the more moderate RCP4.5 scenario.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-56" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[55]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2018 <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Magazine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Science Magazine">Science Magazine</a> paper estimated that that at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 3.2 °C (5.8 °F), over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 4%, 8% and 26% of vertebrate species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Warren2018b_57-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Warren2018b-57" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[56]</a></sup> This estimate was later directly cited in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a>. According to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List</a> criteria, such a range loss is sufficient to classify as species as "endangered", and it is considered equivalent to >20% likelihood of extinction over the 10–100 years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2022, a <i>Science Advances</i> paper estimated that <i>local</i> extinctions of 6% of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrates" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a> alone would occur by 2050 under the "intermediate" <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">SSP2-4.5</a> scenario, and 10.8% under the pathway of continually increasing emissions SSP5-8.5. By 2100, those would increase to ~13% and ~27%, respectively. These estimates included local extinctions from all causes, not just climate change: however, it was estimated to account for the majority (~62%) of extinctions, followed by secondary extinctions or coextinctions (~20%), with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Land use">land use</a> change and invasive species combined accounting for less than 20%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Strona2022_11-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Strona2022-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2023, a study estimated the proportion of vertebrates which would exposed to extreme heat beyond what they were known to have experienced historically in at least half their distribution by the end of the century. Under the highest-emission pathway SSP5–8.5 (a warming of 4.4 °C (7.9 °F) by 2100, according to the paper), this would include ~41% of all land vertebrates (31.1% mammals, 25.8% birds, 55.5% amphibians and 51% reptiles). On the other hand, SSP1–2.6 (1.8 °C (3.2 °F) by 2100) would only see 6.1% of vertebrate species exposed to unprecedented heat in at least of their area, while SSP2–4.5 (2.7 °C (4.9 °F) by 2100) and SSP3–7.0 (3.6 °C (6.5 °F) by 2100) would see 15.1% and 28.8%, respectively.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-58" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[57]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Another 2023 paper suggested that under SSP5-8.5, around 55.29% of terrestrial vertebrate species would experience <i>some</i> local habitat loss by 2100 due to unprecedented <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aridity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aridity">aridity</a> alone, while 16.56% would lose <i>over half</i> of their original habitat to aridity. Around 7.18% of those species will find <i>all</i> of their original habitat too dry to survive in by 2100, presumably going extinct unless migration or some form of adaptation to a dryer environment can occur. Under SSP2-4.5, 41.22% of the terrestrial vertebrates will lose some habitat to aridity, 8.62% will lose over half, and 4.69% will lose all of it, and under SSP1-2.6, these figures go down to 25.16%, 4.62% and 3.04%, respectively.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Liu2023_59-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Liu2023-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[58]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Amphibians">Amphibians</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Amphibians">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="3091" data-file-width="3583" decoding="async" height="190" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/49/Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg/220px-Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/49/Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg/330px-Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/49/Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg/440px-Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Present and future exposure of frog species around the world to unprecedented heat, under a more intense climate change scenario SSP3-7.0. Green, yellow and red circles show whether one, two or all three key thresholds (annual mean temperature, coldest month temperature or temperature variability) are exceeded by 2100.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Feijó2022_60-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Feij%C3%B32022-60" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[59]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2013 study estimated that 670–933 amphibian species (11–15%) are both highly vulnerable to climate change while already being on the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_List" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Red List">Red List</a> of threatened species. A further 698–1,807 (11–29%) amphibian species are not currently threatened, but could become threatened in the future due to their high vulnerability to climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Foden2013_61-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Foden2013-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[60]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> concluded that while at 2 °C (3.6 °F), fewer than 3% of most amphibian species would be at a <i>very high</i> risk of extinction, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamander" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salamander">salamanders</a> are more than twice as vulnerable, with nearly 7% of species highly threatened. At 3.2 °C (5.8 °F), 11% of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibians" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amphibians">amphibians</a> and 24% of salamanders would be at a very high risk of extinction.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 64.15% of amphibians would lose at least some habitat by 2100 purely due to an increase in aridity, with 33.26% losing over half of it, and 16.21% finding their entire current habitat too dry for them to survive in. These figures go down to 47.46%, 18.60% and 10.31% under the "intermediate" SSP2-4.5 scenario and to 31.69%, 11.18% and 7.36% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Liu2023_59-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Liu2023-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[58]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2022 study estimated that while right now, 14.8% of the global range of all <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anuran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Anuran">anurans</a> (frogs) is in an extinction risk area, this will increase to 30.7% by 2100 under <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathway</a> SSP1-2.6 (low emission pathway), 49.9% under SSP2-4.5, 59.4% under SSP3-7.0 and 64.4% under the highest-emitting SSP5-8.5. Extreme-sized anuran species are disproportionately affected: while currently only 0.3% of these species have >70% of their range in a risk area, this number will increase to 3.9% under SSP1-2.6, 14.2% under SSP2-4.5, 21.5% under SSP3-7 and 26% under SSP5-8.5<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Feijó2022_60-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Feij%C3%B32022-60" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[59]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2018 paper estimated that both <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_miombo_woodlands" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern miombo woodlands">Miombo Woodlands of South Africa</a> and southwestern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Australia">Australia</a> would lose around 90% of their amphibians if the warming were to reach 4.5 °C (8.1 °F).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Warren2018a-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Birds">Birds</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Birds">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change and birds">Climate change and birds</a></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="2447" data-file-width="2128" decoding="async" height="253" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/64/Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg/220px-Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/64/Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg/330px-Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/64/Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg/440px-Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Increase in extinction risk for US bird species under two different levels of warming.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2012, it was estimated that on average, every degree of warming results in between 100 and 500 land bird extinctions. For a warming of 3.5 °C (6.3 °F) by 2100, the same research estimated between 600 and 900 land bird extinctions, with 89% occurring in the tropical environments.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-62" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[61]</a></sup> A 2013 study estimated that 608–851 bird species (6–9%) are highly vulnerable to climate change while being on the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_List" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Red List">Red List</a> of threatened species, and 1,715–4,039 (17–41%) bird species are not currently threatened but could become threatened due to climate change in the future.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Foden2013_61-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Foden2013-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[60]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 51.79% of birds would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid, but only 5.25% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 1.29% could be expected to lose their entire habitat. These figures go down to 38.65%, 2.02% and 0.95% under the "intermediate" SSP2-4.5 scenario and to 22.83%, 0.70% and 0.49% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Liu2023_59-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Liu2023-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[58]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2015, it was projected that native forest birds in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> would be threatened with extinction due to the spread of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_malaria" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Avian malaria">avian malaria</a> under the high-warming <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP8.5</a> scenario or a similar scenario from earlier modelling, but would persist under the "intermediate" RCP4.5.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-63" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[62]</a></sup> For the 604 bird species in mainland <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="North America">North America</a>, 2020 research concluded that under 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) warming, 207 would be <i>moderately</i> vulnerable to extinction and 47 would be <i>highly</i> vulnerable. At 2 °C (3.6 °F), this changes to 198 moderately vulnerable and 91 highly vulnerable. At 3 °C (5.4 °F), there are more highly vulnerable species (205) than moderately vulnerable species (140). Relative to 3 °C (5.4 °F), stabilizing the warming at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) represents a reduction in extinction risk for 76% of those species, and 38% stop being vulnerable.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-64" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-64" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[63]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-65" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[64]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-66" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-66" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[65]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill,_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park,_Limpopo,_South_Africa_(18115941578).jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="2950" data-file-width="2229" decoding="async" height="291" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill%2C_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park%2C_Limpopo%2C_South_Africa_%2818115941578%29.jpg/220px-Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill%2C_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park%2C_Limpopo%2C_South_Africa_%2818115941578%29.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill%2C_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park%2C_Limpopo%2C_South_Africa_%2818115941578%29.jpg/330px-Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill%2C_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park%2C_Limpopo%2C_South_Africa_%2818115941578%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill%2C_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park%2C_Limpopo%2C_South_Africa_%2818115941578%29.jpg/440px-Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill%2C_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park%2C_Limpopo%2C_South_Africa_%2818115941578%29.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill,_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park,_Limpopo,_South_Africa_(18115941578).jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill female.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_miombo_woodlands" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern miombo woodlands">Miombo Woodlands of South Africa</a> are predicted to lose about 86% of their birds if the warming reaches 4.5 °C (8.1 °F).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Warren2018a-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup> In 2019, it was also estimated that multiple bird species endemic to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Africa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern Africa">southern Africa</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalahari_Desert" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kalahari Desert">Kalahari Desert</a> (<a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Pied_Babbler" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern Pied Babbler">Southern Pied Babblers</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill">Southern Yellow-billed Hornbills</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Fiscal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern Fiscal">Southern Fiscals</a>) would either be all-but-lost from it or reduced to its eastern fringes by the end of the century, depending on the emission scenario. While the temperatures are not projected to become so high as to kill the birds outright, they would still be high enough to prevent them from sustaining sufficient body mass and energy for breeding.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-67" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-67" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[66]</a></sup> By 2022, breeding success of the Southern Yellow-billed Hornbills was already observed to collapse in the hottest, southern parts of the desert. It was predicted that those particular subpopulations would disappear by 2027.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-68" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-68" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[67]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-69" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-69" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[68]</a></sup> Similarly, it was found that two <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopian</a> bird species, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-tailed_Swallow" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="White-tailed Swallow">White-tailed Swallow</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Bush-crow" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ethiopian Bush-crow">Ethiopian Bush-crow</a>, would lose 68-84% and >90% of their range by 2070. As their existing geographical range is already very limited, this means that it would likely end up too small to support a viable population even under the scenario of limited climate change, rendering these species <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinct in the wild">extinct in the wild</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-70" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-70" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[69]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colony_of_aptenodytes_patagonicus.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="1200" data-file-width="1600" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Colony_of_aptenodytes_patagonicus.jpg/220px-Colony_of_aptenodytes_patagonicus.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Colony_of_aptenodytes_patagonicus.jpg/330px-Colony_of_aptenodytes_patagonicus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Colony_of_aptenodytes_patagonicus.jpg/440px-Colony_of_aptenodytes_patagonicus.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colony_of_aptenodytes_patagonicus.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_penguin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="King penguin">King penguins</a> are threatened by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change in Antarctica">climate change in Antarctica</a>.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate change is particularly threatening to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Penguin">penguins</a>. As early as in 2008, it was estimated that every time <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ocean" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> temperatures increase by 0.26 °C (0.47 °F), this reduces <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_penguin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="King penguin">king penguin</a> populations by 9%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-71" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-71" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[70]</a></sup> Subsequent research found that under the worst-case warming trajectory, king penguins will permanently lose at least two out of their current eight breeding sites, and 70% of the species will have to relocate to avoid disappearance, requiring the movement of 1.1 million pairs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-72" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-72" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[71]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-73" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-73" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[72]</a></sup> A 27-year study of the largest colony of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magellanic_penguin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Magellanic penguin">Magellanic penguins</a> in the world, published in 2014, found that extreme weather caused by climate change kills 7% of penguin chicks in an average year, accounting for up to 50% of all chick deaths in some years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-74" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-74" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[73]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Fountain_75-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Fountain-75" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[74]</a></sup> Since 1987, the number of breeding pairs in the colony has reduced by 24%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Fountain_75-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Fountain-75" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[74]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinstrap_penguin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chinstrap penguin">Chinstrap penguins</a> are also known to be in decline, mainly due to corresponding declines of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_krill" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antarctic krill">Antarctic krill</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-76" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-76" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[75]</a></sup> And it was estimated that while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_penguin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Adélie penguin">Adélie penguins</a> will retain some of its habitat past 2099, one-third of colonies along the West Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) will be in decline by 2060. Those colonies are believed to represent about 20% of the entire species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-77" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-77" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[76]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Fish">Fish</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Fish">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Effects of climate change on oceans</a></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="3437" data-file-width="3763" decoding="async" height="201" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3e/2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg/220px-2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3e/2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg/330px-2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3e/2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg/440px-2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The projected changes in freshwater fish distribution in Minnesotan lakes under high future warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Wagner2023_78-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Wagner2023-78" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[77]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">It has been projected in 2015 that many fish species will migrate towards the North and South poles as a result of climate change. Under the highest emission scenario <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP8.5</a>, 2 new species would enter (invade) per 0.5° of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Latitude">latitude</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> and 1.5 in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ocean" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>. It woul also result in an average of 6.5 local extinctions per 0.5° of latitude outside of the poles.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-79" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-79" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[78]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2022 paper found that 45% of all marine species at risk of extinction are affected by climate change, but it's currently less damaging to their survival than <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfishing" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, transportation, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_development" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Urban development">urban development</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>. However, if the emissions were to rise unchecked, then by the end of the century climate change would become as important as all of them combined. Continued high emissions until 2300 would then risk a mass extinction equivalent to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Permian-Triassic extinction event">Permian-Triassic extinction event</a>, or "The Great Dying". On the other hand, staying at low emissions would reduce future climate-driven extinctions in the oceans by over 70%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-80" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-80" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[79]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-81" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-81" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[80]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2021 study which analyzed around 11,500 <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> fish species concluded that 1-4% of those species would be likely to lose over half of their current geographic range at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and 1-9% at 2 °C (3.6 °F). A warming of 3.2 °C (5.8 °F) would threaten 8-36% of freshwater fish species with such range loss and 4.5 °C (8.1 °F) would threaten 24-63%. The different percentages represent different assumptions about how well freshwater fishes could disperse to new areas and thus offset past range losses, with the highest percentages assuming no dispersal is possible.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-82" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-82" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[81]</a></sup> According to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List</a> criteria, such a range loss is sufficient to classify as species as "endangered", and it is considered equivalent to >20% likelihood of extinction over the 10–100 years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2023, a study looked at freshwater fish in 900 lakes of the American state of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>. It found that if their water temperature increases by 4 °C (7.2 °F) in July (said to occur under approximately the same amount of global warming), then <i>cold-water</i> fish species like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco_(fish)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cisco (fish)">cisco</a> would disappear from 167 lakes, which represents 61% of their habitat in Minnesota. <i>Cool-water</i> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_perch" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Yellow perch">yellow perch</a> would see its numbers decline by about 7% across all of Minnesota's lakes, while warm-water <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluegill" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bluegill">bluegill</a> would increase by around 10%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Wagner2023_78-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Wagner2023-78" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[77]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Mammals">Mammals</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Mammals">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="400" data-file-width="770" decoding="async" height="114" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg/220px-Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg/330px-Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg/440px-Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bramble_Cay_melomys" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bramble Cay melomys">Bramble Cay melomys</a>, thought to be the first mammal species to go extinct due to the impacts of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change in Australia">climate change</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:0-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 50.29% of mammals would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid. Out of those, 9.50% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 3.21% could be expected to lose their entire habitat ad the result. These figures go down to 38.27%, 4.96% and 2.22% under the "intermediate" SSP2-4.5 scenario, and to 22.65%, 2.03% and 1.15% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Liu2023_59-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Liu2023-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[58]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2020, a study in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Climate_Change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nature Climate Change">Nature Climate Change</a></i> estimated the effects of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a> on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Polar bear">polar bear</a> populations (which rely on the sea ice to hunt <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinniped" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pinniped">seals</a>) under two climate change scenarios. Under high <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, at most a few high-Arctic populations will remain by 2100: under more moderate scenario, the species will survive this century, but several major subpopulations will still be wiped out.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-83" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-83" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[82]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Briggs-bears_84-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Briggs-bears-84" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[83]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2019, it was estimated that the current <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_ape" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Great ape">great ape</a> range in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Africa">Africa</a> will decline massively under both the severe <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP8.5</a> scenario and the more moderate RCP4.5. The apes could potentially disperse to new habitats, but those would lie almost completely outside of their current <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_area" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Protected area">protected areas</a>, meaning that conservation planning needs to be "urgently" updated to account for this.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-85" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[84]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polar_Bear_AdF.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="1280" data-file-width="1920" decoding="async" height="147" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Polar_Bear_AdF.jpg/220px-Polar_Bear_AdF.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Polar_Bear_AdF.jpg/330px-Polar_Bear_AdF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Polar_Bear_AdF.jpg/440px-Polar_Bear_AdF.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polar_Bear_AdF.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A polar bear.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2017 analysis found that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_goat" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mountain goat">mountain goat</a> populations of coastal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> would go extinct sometime between 2015 and 2085 in half of the considered scenarios of climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-86" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-86" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[85]</a></sup> Another analysis found that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_miombo_woodlands" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Southern miombo woodlands">Miombo Woodlands of South Africa</a> are predicted to lose about 80% of their mammal species if the warming reached 4.5 °C (8.1 °F).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Warren2018a-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2008, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur-like_Ringtail_Possum" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lemur-like Ringtail Possum">white lemuroid possum</a> was reported to be the first known <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mammal">mammal</a> species to be driven extinct by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. However, these reports were based on a misunderstanding. One population of these possums in the mountain forests of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Queensland" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="North Queensland">North Queensland</a> is severely threatened by climate change as the animals cannot survive extended temperatures over 30 °C (86 °F). However, another population 100 kilometres south remains in good health.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-87" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-87" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[86]</a></sup> On the other hand, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bramble_Cay_melomys" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bramble Cay melomys">Bramble Cay melomys</a>, which lived on a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> island, was reported as the first mammal to go extinct due to human-induced <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_9-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-:0-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup> with the Australian government officially confirming its extinction in 2019. Another Australian species, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_stick-nest_rat" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greater stick-nest rat">greater stick-nest rat</a> (<i>Leporillus conditor</i>) may be next. Similarly, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Australian_bushfire_season" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="2019–20 Australian bushfire season">2019–20 Australian bushfire season</a> caused a near-complete extirpation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo_Island_dunnart" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kangaroo Island dunnart">Kangaroo Island dunnarts</a>, as only one individual may have survived out of the population of 500.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-atlantic_88-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-atlantic-88" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[87]</a></sup> Those bushfires have also caused the loss of 8,000 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koala" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Koala">koalas</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a> alone, further endangering the species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-89" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-89" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[88]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-90" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-90" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[89]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Reptiles">Reptiles</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Reptiles">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="1173" data-file-width="2173" decoding="async" height="119" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2e/Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png/220px-Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2e/Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png/330px-Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2e/Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png/440px-Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The vulnerability of different European lizard populations to extinctions caused by climate change. Populations in group A are already at risk, B and C will be threatened under 2 °C (3.6 °F). Groups D and E will become threatened under 3 °C (5.4 °F) and 4 °C (7.2 °F), and Group F is unikely to be threatened.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bestion2015_91-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Bestion2015-91" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[90]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 56.36% of reptiles would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid. Out of those, 23.97% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 10.94% could be expected to lose their entire habitat as the result. These figures go down to 41.69%, 12.35% and 7.15% under the "intermediate" SSP2-4.5 scenario, and to 24.59%, 6.56% and 4.43% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Liu2023_59-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Liu2023-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[58]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In a 2010 study led by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Sinervo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Barry Sinervo">Barry Sinervo</a>, researchers surveyed 200 sites in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> which showed 24 local extinctions (also known as extirpations), of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sceloporus" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sceloporus">Sceloporus</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizard" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lizard">lizards</a> since 1975. Using a model developed from these observed extinctions the researchers surveyed other extinctions around the world and found that the model predicted those observed extirpations, thus attributing the extirpations around the world to climate warming. These models predict that extinctions of the lizard species around the world will reach 20% by 2080, but up to 40% extinctions in tropical ecosystems where the lizards are closer to their ecophysiological limits than lizards in the temperate zone.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-92" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-92" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[91]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-93" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-93" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[92]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Green_Sea_Turtle_grazing_seagrass.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="2525" data-file-width="3367" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Green_Sea_Turtle_grazing_seagrass.jpg/220px-Green_Sea_Turtle_grazing_seagrass.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Green_Sea_Turtle_grazing_seagrass.jpg/330px-Green_Sea_Turtle_grazing_seagrass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Green_Sea_Turtle_grazing_seagrass.jpg/440px-Green_Sea_Turtle_grazing_seagrass.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Green_Sea_Turtle_grazing_seagrass.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Green sea turtle grazing grass.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2015 study looked at the persistence of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_lizard" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Common lizard">common lizard</a> populations in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Europe">Europe</a> under future climate change. It found that under 2 °C (3.6 °F), 11% of the lizard population would be threatened with local extinction around 2050 and 14% by 2100. At 3 °C (5.4 °F) by 2100, 21% of the population are threatened, and at 4 °C (7.2 °F), 30% of the populations are.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bestion2015_91-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Bestion2015-91" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[90]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Following the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Australian_bushfire_season" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="2019–20 Australian bushfire season">2019–20 Australian bushfire season</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltuarius_kateae" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Saltuarius kateae">Kate's leaf tailed gecko</a> lost over 80% of its available habitat.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-94" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-94" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[93]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Sex ratios for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_turtle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea turtle">sea turtles</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> are being affected because of climate change. Environmental data were collected from the annual rainfall and tide temperatures over the course of 200 years and showed an increase in air temperature (mean of 31.0 degree Celsius). These data were used to relate the decline of the sex ratios of sea turtles in the North East Caribbean and climate change. The species of sea turtles include <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leatherback_sea_turtle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Leatherback sea turtle">Dermochelys coriacea</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_sea_turtle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Green sea turtle">Chelonia myads</a></i>, and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawksbill_sea_turtle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hawksbill sea turtle">Eretmochelys imbricata</a>.</i> Extinction is a risk for these species as the sex ratio is being afflicted causing a higher female to male ratio. Projections estimate the declining rate of male <i>Chelonia myads</i> as 2.4% hatchlings being male by 2030 and 0.4% by 2090.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-95" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-95" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[94]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Invertebrates">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> estimates that while at 2 °C (3.6 °F), fewer than 3% of invertebrates would be at a <i>very high</i> risk of extinction, 15% would be at a very high risk at 3.2 °C (5.8 °F). This includes 12% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinator" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pollinator">pollinator</a> species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-7" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Spiders">Spiders</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Spiders">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2018 study examined the impact of climate change on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troglohyphantes" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Troglohyphantes">Troglohyphantes</a> cave spiders in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Alps" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Alps">the Alps</a> and found that even the low-emission scenario <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP2.6</a> would reduce their habitat by ~45% by 2050, while the high emission scenario would reduce it by ~55% by 2050 and ~70% by 2070. The authors suggested that this may be sufficient to drive the most restricted species to extinction.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-96" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-96" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[95]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Corals">Corals</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Corals">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Environmental issues with coral reefs</a></div><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pulau_Piaynemo,_Raja_Ampat.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="2736" data-file-width="3648" decoding="async" height="165" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg/220px-Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg/330px-Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg/440px-Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pulau_Piaynemo,_Raja_Ampat.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Coral reefs off <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raja_Ampat_Islands" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Raja Ampat Islands">Raja Ampat Islands</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guinea" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Almost no other ecosystem is as vulnerable to climate change as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>. Updated 2022 estimates show that even at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), only 0.2% of the world's coral reefs would still be able to withstand <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_heatwave" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine heatwave">marine heatwaves</a>, as opposed to 84% being able to do so now, with the figure dropping to 0% by 2 °C (3.6 °F) and beyond.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-97" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-97" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[96]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-98" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-98" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[97]</a></sup> However, it was found in 2021 that each square meter of coral reef area contains about 30 individual corals, and their total number is estimated at half a trillion - equivalent to all the trees in the Amazon, or all the birds in the world. As such, most individual coral reef species are predicted to avoid extinction even as coral reefs would cease to function as the ecosystems we know.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Dietzel2021_99-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Dietzel2021-99" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[98]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-100" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-100" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[99]</a></sup> A 2013 study found that 47–73 coral species (6–9%) are vulnerable to climate change while already threatened with extinction according to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List</a>, and 74–174 (9–22%) coral species were not vulnerable to extinction at the time of publication, but could be threatened under continued climate change, making them a future conservation priority.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Foden2013_61-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Foden2013-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[60]</a></sup> The authors of the recent coral number estimates suggest that those older projections were too high, although this has been disputed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Dietzel2021_99-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Dietzel2021-99" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[98]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-101" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-101" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[100]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-102" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-102" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[101]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Insects">Insects</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Insects">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:00_1680_Bumblebee.gif" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="640" data-file-width="480" decoding="async" height="293" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/00_1680_Bumblebee.gif/220px-00_1680_Bumblebee.gif" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/00_1680_Bumblebee.gif/330px-00_1680_Bumblebee.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/00_1680_Bumblebee.gif/440px-00_1680_Bumblebee.gif 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:00_1680_Bumblebee.gif" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Bumblebee collecting pollen.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Insects account for the vast majority of invertebrate species. One of the earliest studies to link insect extinctions to recent <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">climate change</a> was published in 2002, when observations of two populations of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_checkerspot_butterfly" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bay checkerspot butterfly">Bay checkerspot butterfly</a> found that they were threatened by changes in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-McLaughlin_103-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-McLaughlin-103" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[102]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2020 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_experiment" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Long-term experiment">long-term study</a> of more than 60 bee species published in the journal <i>Science</i> found that climate change causes drastic declines in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Population">population</a> and diversity of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumblebee" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bumblebee">bumblebees</a> across the two continents studied, independent of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Land use">land use</a> change and at rates "consistent with a mass extinction." When 1901-1974 "baseline" period was compared with the 2000 to 2014 recent period, then <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="North America">North America</a>'s bumblebee populations were found to have fallen by 46%, while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Europe">Europe</a>'s population fell by 14%. The strongest effects were seen in the southern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Region">regions</a>, where rapid increases in frequency of extreme warm years had exceeded the species’ historical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Temperature">temperature</a> ranges.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-104" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-104" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[103]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-105" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-105" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[104]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2018 <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Magazine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Science Magazine">Science Magazine</a> paper estimated that at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 3.2 °C (5.8 °F), over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 6%, 18% and ~49% of insect species, with this loss corresponding to >20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years according to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> criteria.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Warren2018b_57-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Warren2018b-57" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[56]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-8" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2022, it was found that the warming which occurred over the past 40 years in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Germany">Germany</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavaria" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a> region pushed out cold-adapted <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasshopper" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Grasshopper">grasshoppers</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Butterfly">butterfly</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonfly" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dragonfly">dragonfly</a> species, while allowing warm-adapted species from those taxa to become more widespread. Altogether, 27% of dragonfly and 41% of butterfly and grasshopper species occupied less area, while 52% of dragonflies became more widespread, along with 27% of grasshoppers (41%, 20 species) and 20% of butterflies, with the rest showing no trend in area change. The study only measured geographic spread and not total abundance. While the paper looked at both climate and land use change, it suggested the latter was only a significant negative factor for specialist butterfly species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-106" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-106" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[105]</a></sup> Around the same time, it was predicted that in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, between 2% and 34% of the native butterfly species could lose their entire habitat under scenarios SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5, respectively.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-107" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-107" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[106]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Plants">Plants</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Plants">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The 2018 <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Magazine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Science Magazine">Science Magazine</a> estimate found that at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 3.2 °C (5.8 °F), over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 8%, 16%, and 44% of plant species, corresponding to >20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years under the IUCN criteria.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Warren2018b_57-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Warren2018b-57" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[56]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-9" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The 2022 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> estimates that while at 2 °C (3.6 °F), fewer than 3% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> would be at a <i>very high</i> risk of extinction, this increases to 10% at 3.2 °C (5.8 °F).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-10" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2020 meta-analysis found that while 39% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_plant" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vascular plant">vascular plant</a> species were likely threatened with extinction, only 4.1% of this figure could be attributed to climate change, with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Land use">land use</a> change activities predominating. However, the researchers suggested that this may be more representative of the slower pace of research on effects of climate change on plants. For <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, it estimated that 9.4% are threatened due to climate change, while 62% are threatened by other forms of habitat loss.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-108" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-108" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[107]</a></sup></p><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="511" data-file-width="640" decoding="async" height="176" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG/220px-Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG/330px-Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG/440px-Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div><i>Viola Calcarata</i> or <i>mountain violet</i>, which is projected to go extinct in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Alps" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Swiss Alps">Swiss Alps</a> around 2050.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Alpine and mountain plant species are known to be some of the most vulnerable to climate change. In 2010, a study looking at 2,632 species located in and around European <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_range" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mountain range">mountain ranges</a> found that depending on the climate scenario, 36–55% of alpine species, 31–51% of subalpine species and 19–46% of montane species would lose more than 80% of their suitable habitat by 2070–2100.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-109" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-109" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[108]</a></sup> In 2012, it was estimated that for the 150 plant species in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Alps" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="European Alps">European Alps</a>, their range would, on average, decline by 44%-50% by the end of the century - moreover, lags in their shifts would mean that around 40% of their remaining range would soon become unsuitable as well, often leading to an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_debt" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinction debt">extinction debt</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-110" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-110" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[109]</a></sup> In 2022, it was found that those earlier studies simulated abrupt, "stepwise" climate shifts, while more realistic gradual warming would see a rebound in alpine plant diversity after mid-century under the "intermediate" and most intense global warming scenarios <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP4.5</a> and RCP8.5. However, for RCP8.5, that rebound would be deceptive, followed by the same collapse in biodiversity at the end of the century as simulated in the earlier papers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Block2022_111-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Block2022-111" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[110]</a></sup> This is because on average, every degree of warming reduces total species population growth by 7%,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-112" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-112" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[111]</a></sup> and the rebound was driven by colonization of niches left behind by most vulnerable species like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androsace" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Androsace">Androsace chamaejasme</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viola_calcarata" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Viola calcarata">Viola calcarata</a> going extinct by mid-century or earlier.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Block2022_111-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Block2022-111" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[110]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">It's been estimated that by 2050, climate change alone could reduce <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_richness" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Species richness">species richness</a> of trees in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Rainforest" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amazon Rainforest">Amazon Rainforest</a> by 31–37%, while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> alone could be responsible for 19–36%, and the combined effect might reach 58%. The paper's worst-case scenario for both stressors had only 53% of the original rainforest area surviving as a continuous ecosystem by 2050, with the rest reduced to a severely fragmented block.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-113" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-113" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[112]</a></sup> Another study estimated that the rainforest would lose 69% of its plant species under the warming of 4.5 °C (8.1 °F).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Warren2018a-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Another estimate suggests that two prominent species of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagrass" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Seagrass">seagrasses</a> in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> would be substantially affected under the worst-case greenhouse gas emission scenario, with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonia_oceanica" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Posidonia oceanica">Posidonia oceanica</a> losing 75% of its habitat by 2050 and potentially becoming functionally extinct by 2100, while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymodocea_nodosa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cymodocea nodosa">Cymodocea nodosa</a> would lose ~46% of its habitat and then stabilize due to expansion into previously unsuitable areas.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-114" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-114" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[113]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Impacts_of_species_degradation_on_livelihoods">Impacts of species degradation on livelihoods</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Impacts of species degradation on livelihoods">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The livelihoods of nature dependent communities depend on abundance and availability of certain species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-115" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-115" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[114]</a></sup> Climate change conditions such as increase in atmospheric temperature and carbon dioxide concentration directly affect availability of biomass energy, food, fiber and other ecosystem services.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-116" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-116" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[115]</a></sup> Degradation of species supplying such products directly affect the livelihoods of people relying on them more so in Africa.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-117" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-117" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[116]</a></sup> The situation is likely to be exacerbated by changes in rainfall variability which is likely to give dominance to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> especially those that are spread across large latitudinal gradients.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-118" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-118" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[117]</a></sup> The effects that climate change has on both plant and animal species within certain ecosystems has the ability to directly affect the human inhabitants who rely on natural resources. Frequently, the extinction of plant and animal species create a cyclic relationship of species endangerment in ecosystems which are directly affected by climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-119" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-119" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[118]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Species_adaptation">Species adaptation</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Species adaptation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="910" data-file-width="685" decoding="async" height="292" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png/220px-Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png/330px-Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png/440px-Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Museum specimens of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collared_flycatcher" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Collared flycatcher">Collared flycatcher</a> (top) and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_blackbird" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eurasian blackbird">Eurasian blackbird</a> (bottom) juveniles compared with modern-day birds. Nesting feathers are replaced with adult plumage earlier, and females now complete the shift earlier than males, while in the past it was the opposite.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Many species are already responding to climate change by moving into different areas. For instance, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_hair_grass" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antarctic hair grass">Antarctic hair grass</a> is colonizing areas of Antarctica where previously their survival range was limited.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-120" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-120" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[119]</a></sup> Similarly, 5-20% of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="United States">United States</a> land area is likely to end up with a different <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biome" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biome">biome</a> at the end of the century, as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> undergoes range shifts.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Grimm2013_121-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Grimm2013-121" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[120]</a></sup> However, such shifts can only go so far to protect species: globally, only 5% of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectotherm" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ectotherm">ectotherm</a> species' present locations are within 50 km of a location which would remain fully suitable and not impose <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_fitness" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Evolutionary fitness">evolutionary fitness</a> costs on them by 2100, even under "mid-range" warming scenarios. Completely random dispersal may have an 87% chance of sending the species to a less suitable location. Species in the tropics have the least extensive dispersal options, while species in the temperate mountains face the greatest risks of moving to a wrong location.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Buckley2012_6-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Buckley2012-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[6]</a></sup> Similarly, an <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_selection" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Artificial selection">artificial selection</a> experiment demonstrated that evolution of tolerance to warming can occur in fish, but the rate of evolution appears limited to 0.04 °C (0.072 °F) per generation, which is too slow to protect the vulnerable species from impacts of climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-122" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-122" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[121]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Rising temperatures are beginning to have a noticeable impact on birds,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-123" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-123" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[122]</a></sup> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a> nearly 160 species from 10 different zones<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-124" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-124" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[123]</a></sup> have shifted their ranges northward by 200 km in Europe and North America. The migration range of larger animals may be constrained by human development.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-125" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-125" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[124]</a></sup> In Britain, spring butterflies are appearing an average of 6 days earlier than two decades ago.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-126" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-126" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[125]</a></sup></p><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">This section is an excerpt from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds#Physical_changes" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change and birds">Climate change and birds § Physical changes</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks" style="font-size: small; font-style: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_birds&action=edit#Physical_changes" style="background: none !important; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration-line: none;">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bird">Birds</a> are a group of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warm-blooded" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Warm-blooded">warm-blooded</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> constituting the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(biology)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Class (biology)">class</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aves" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aves">Aves</a>, characterized by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feather" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Feather">feathers</a>, toothless beaked jaws, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oviparity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oviparity">laying</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggshell" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eggshell">hard-shelled</a> eggs, a high <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Metabolism">metabolic</a> rate, a four-chambered <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Heart">heart</a>, and a strong yet lightweight <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_skeleton" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bird skeleton">skeleton</a>.</p>Climate change has already altered the appearance of some birds by facilitating changes to their <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feathers" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Feathers">feathers</a>. A comparison of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Museum">museum</a> specimens of juvenile <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passerines" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Passerines">passerines</a> from 1800s with juveniles of the same species today had shown that these birds now complete the switch from their nesting feathers to adult feathers earlier in their lifecycle, and that females now do this earlier than males.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Climate_change_and_birds_Kiat2019_127-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Climate_change_and_birds_Kiat2019-127" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[126]</a></sup> Further, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_tit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Blue tit">blue tits</a> are defined by blue and yellow feathers, but a study in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="France">France</a> had shown that those contrasting colors became less bright and intense in just the period between 2005 and 2019.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Climate_change_and_birds_study1_128-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-Climate_change_and_birds_study1-128" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[127]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-129" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-129" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[128]</a></sup></div></div><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0.5em 1.4em 1.3em 0px; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_red_deer.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="3343" data-file-width="5014" decoding="async" height="147" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Young_red_deer.jpg/220px-Young_red_deer.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Young_red_deer.jpg/330px-Young_red_deer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Young_red_deer.jpg/440px-Young_red_deer.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_red_deer.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A young red deer in the wild in Scotland.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate change has affected the gene pool of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_red_deer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scottish red deer">red deer</a> population on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B9m" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rùm">Rùm</a>, one of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Hebrides" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Inner Hebrides">Inner Hebrides</a> islands, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. Warmer temperatures resulted in deer giving birth on average three days earlier for each decade of the study. The gene which selects for earlier birth has increased in the population because those with the gene have more calves over their lifetime.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-130" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-130" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[129]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Prevention">Prevention</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In addition to reducing future warming to the lowest possible levels, preserving the current and likely near-future habitat of endangered species in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_area" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Protected area">protected areas</a> in efforts like <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30x30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="30x30">30x30</a> is a crucial aspect of helping species survive. A more radical approach is the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assisted_migration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Assisted migration">assisted migration</a> of species endangered by climate change to new habitats, whether passively (through measures like the creation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wildlife corridor">wildlife corridors</a> to allow them to move to a new area unimpeded), or their active transport to new areas. This is approach is more controversial, since some of the rescued species may end up <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Invasive species">invasive</a> in their new locations. I.e. while it would be relatively easy to move <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Polar bear">polar bears</a>, which are currently threatened by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a>, to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, the damage to Antarctica's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> is considered too great to allow this. Finally, species which are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinct in the wild">extinct in the wild</a> may be kept alive in artificial surroundings until a suitable natural habitat may be restored. In cases where <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captive_breeding" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Captive breeding">captive breeding</a> fails, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo_cryopreservation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Embryo cryopreservation">embryo cryopreservation</a> has been proposed as an option of last resort.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-11" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Apiculture_initiatives_to_prevent_human-wildlife_conflict_in_Zimbabwe">Apiculture initiatives to prevent human-wildlife conflict in Zimbabwe</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Apiculture initiatives to prevent human-wildlife conflict in Zimbabwe">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Women in rural communities in Hurungwe rural district Zimbabwe have resorted to placing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beehive" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Beehive">beehives</a> at the border of fields and villages (bio fencing) to protect themselves and their crops from elephants.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-131" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-131" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[130]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Assisted_migration">Assisted migration</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Assisted migration">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assisted_migration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Assisted migration">Assisted migration</a> is the act of moving plants or animals to a different <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Habitat">habitat</a>. It has been proposed as a way to rescue species which may not be able to disperse easily, have long generation times or have small populations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sector_132-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-sector-132" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[131]</a></sup> This strategy has already been implemented to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assisted_migration_of_forests_in_North_America" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Assisted migration of forests in North America">save multiple tree species in North America</a>. For instance, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torreya_Guardians" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Torreya Guardians">Torreya Guardians</a> have coordinated an assisted migration program to save the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torreya_taxifolia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Torreya taxifolia">Torreya taxifolia</a></i> from extinction.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-133" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_note-133" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[132]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12.6px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><ul aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright" role="navigation" style="background: rgb(249, 249, 249); border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; 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vertical-align: middle;" width="28" /></span><span class="portalbox-link" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry" style="display: table-row; font-size: 11.9px; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; height: 1.9em; line-height: 13.09px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="portalbox-image" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><img alt="icon" class="noviewer" data-file-height="1056" data-file-width="1112" decoding="async" height="28" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/30px-Climate_change_icon.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/44px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/59px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" style="border: 0px; 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chytridiomycosis">Chytridiomycosis</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_services" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastric-brooding_frog" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gastric-brooding frog">Gastric-brooding frog</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_toad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Golden toad">Golden toad</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guajira_stubfoot_toad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Guajira stubfoot toad">Guajira stubfoot toad</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keystone_species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleocene%E2%80%93Eocene_Thermal_Maximum" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum">Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum</a></li></ul><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12.6px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns" style="column-width: 30em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><ol class="references" style="counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-parent 0 mw-references 0 list-item 0; font-size: 12.6px; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li id="cite_note-Song2021-1" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Song2021_1-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Song2021_1-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSongKempTianChu2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Song, Haijun; Kemp, David B.; Tian, Li; Chu, Daoliang; Song, Huyue; Dai, Xu (August 4, 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8338942" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Thresholds of temperature change for mass extinctions"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 4694. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatCo..12.4694S" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2021NatCo..12.4694S</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-021-25019-2" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41467-021-25019-2</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8338942" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">8338942</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34349121" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">34349121</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Thresholds+of+temperature+change+for+mass+extinctions&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4694&rft.date=2021-08-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8338942%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34349121&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-021-25019-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021NatCo..12.4694S&rft.aulast=Song&rft.aufirst=Haijun&rft.au=Kemp%2C+David+B.&rft.au=Tian%2C+Li&rft.au=Chu%2C+Daoliang&rft.au=Song%2C+Huyue&rft.au=Dai%2C+Xu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8338942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Pocheville2015-2" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Pocheville2015_2-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFPocheville2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Pocheville, Arnaud (2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6188833" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies"</a>. In Heams, Thomas; Huneman, Philippe; Lecointre, Guillaume; et al. (eds.). <i>Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences</i>. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 547–586. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-9014-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-017-9014-7"><bdi>978-94-017-9014-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ecological+Niche%3A+History+and+Recent+Controversies&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Evolutionary+Thinking+in+the+Sciences&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=547-586&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-94-017-9014-7&rft.aulast=Pocheville&rft.aufirst=Arnaud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6188833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-3" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/climate-change/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Change"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. 28 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">1 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Climate+Change&rft.date=2019-03-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Fclimate-change%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-4" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFWitze" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Witze, Alexandra. <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07447-1" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Why extreme rains are gaining strength as the climate warms"</a>. <i>Nature</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">30 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Why+extreme+rains+are+gaining+strength+as+the+climate+warms&rft.aulast=Witze&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fd41586-018-07447-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-5" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFVan_der_PuttenMacelVisser2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Van der Putten, Wim H.; Macel, Mirka; Visser, Marcel E. (2010-07-12). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2880132" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Predicting species distribution and abundance responses to climate change: why it is essential to include biotic interactions across trophic levels"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>365</b>(1549): 2025–2034. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0037" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1098/rstb.2010.0037</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2880132" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2880132</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20513711" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20513711</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Predicting+species+distribution+and+abundance+responses+to+climate+change%3A+why+it+is+essential+to+include+biotic+interactions+across+trophic+levels&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1549&rft.pages=2025-2034&rft.date=2010-07-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2880132%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20513711&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0037&rft.aulast=Van+der+Putten&rft.aufirst=Wim+H.&rft.au=Macel%2C+Mirka&rft.au=Visser%2C+Marcel+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2880132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Buckley2012-6" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Buckley2012_6-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Buckley2012_6-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBuckleyTewksburyDeutsch2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Buckley, Lauren B.; Tewksbury, Joshua J.; Deutsch, Curtis A. (2013-08-22). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3712453" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Can terrestrial ectotherms escape the heat of climate change by moving?"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>280</b>(1765): 20131149. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2013.1149" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1098/rspb.2013.1149</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8452" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0962-8452</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3712453" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3712453</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23825212" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">23825212</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Can+terrestrial+ectotherms+escape+the+heat+of+climate+change+by+moving%3F&rft.volume=280&rft.issue=1765&rft.pages=20131149&rft.date=2013-08-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3712453%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0962-8452&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23825212&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2013.1149&rft.aulast=Buckley&rft.aufirst=Lauren+B.&rft.au=Tewksbury%2C+Joshua+J.&rft.au=Deutsch%2C+Curtis+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3712453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-IPCC6AR_ExtremeEvents-7" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-IPCC6AR_ExtremeEvents_7-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">"Summary for Policymakers". <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I contribution to the WGI Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</i></a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 9 August 2021. p. SPM-23; Fig. SPM.6. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211104175351/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 4 November 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Summary+for+Policymakers&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+2021%3A+The+Physical+Science+Basis.+Working+Group+I+contribution+to+the+WGI+Sixth+Assessment+Report+of+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.pages=SPM-23%3B+Fig.+SPM.6&rft.pub=Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.date=2021-08-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg1%2Fdownloads%2Freport%2FIPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Maxwell2018-8" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Maxwell2018_8-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Maxwell2018_8-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMaxwellButtMaronMcAlpine2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Maxwell, Sean L.; Butt, Nathalie; Maron, Martine; McAlpine, Clive A.; Chapman, Sarah; Ullmann, Ailish; Segan, Dan B.; Watson, James E. M. (2019). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fddi.12878" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Conservation implications of ecological responses to extreme weather and climate events"</a>. <i>Diversity and Distributions</i>. <b>25</b> (4): 613–625. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fddi.12878" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/ddi.12878</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1472-4642" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1472-4642</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diversity+and+Distributions&rft.atitle=Conservation+implications+of+ecological+responses+to+extreme+weather+and+climate+events&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=613-625&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fddi.12878&rft.issn=1472-4642&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=Sean+L.&rft.au=Butt%2C+Nathalie&rft.au=Maron%2C+Martine&rft.au=McAlpine%2C+Clive+A.&rft.au=Chapman%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Ullmann%2C+Ailish&rft.au=Segan%2C+Dan+B.&rft.au=Watson%2C+James+E.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fddi.12878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:0-9" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:0_9-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:0_9-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:0_9-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFSmith2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Smith L (2016-06-15). <a class="external text" href="http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2016/06/extinct-bramble-cay-melomys" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Extinct: Bramble Cay melomys"</a>. <i>Australian Geographic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2016-06-17</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Geographic&rft.atitle=Extinct%3A+Bramble+Cay+melomys&rft.date=2016-06-15&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.australiangeographic.com.au%2Fnews%2F2016%2F06%2Fextinct-bramble-cay-melomys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-10" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFPounds2006" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Pounds, Alan (12 January 2006). "Widespread Amphibian Extinctions from Epidemic Disease Driven by Global Warming". <i>Nature</i>. <b>439</b> (7073): 161–167. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.439..161A" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2006Natur.439..161A</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04246" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/nature04246</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16407945" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">16407945</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4430672" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">4430672</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Widespread+Amphibian+Extinctions+from+Epidemic+Disease+Driven+by+Global+Warming&rft.volume=439&rft.issue=7073&rft.pages=161-167&rft.date=2006-01-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04246&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4430672%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16407945&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.439..161A&rft.aulast=Pounds&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Strona2022-11" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Strona2022_11-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Strona2022_11-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Strona2022_11-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFStronaBradshaw2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Strona, Giovanni; Bradshaw, Corey J.A. (16 December 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9757742" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Coextinctions dominate future vertebrate losses from climate and land use change"</a>. <i>Science Advances</i>. <b>8</b> (50): eabn4345. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022SciA....8N4345S" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2022SciA....8N4345S</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.abn4345" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1126/sciadv.abn4345</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9757742" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">9757742</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36525487" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">36525487</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Advances&rft.atitle=Coextinctions+dominate+future+vertebrate+losses+from+climate+and+land+use+change&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=50&rft.pages=eabn4345&rft.date=2022-12-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9757742%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36525487&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fsciadv.abn4345&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022SciA....8N4345S&rft.aulast=Strona&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rft.au=Bradshaw%2C+Corey+J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9757742&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-IPBES-12" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-IPBES_12-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-IPBES_12-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ipbes.net/media-release-nature%e2%80%99s-dangerous-decline-%e2%80%98unprecedented%e2%80%99-species-extinction-rates-%e2%80%98accelerating%e2%80%99" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Media Release: Nature's Dangerous Decline 'Unprecedented'; Species Extinction Rates 'Accelerating'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>IPBES</i>. 5 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">21 June</span>2023</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IPBES&rft.atitle=Media+Release%3A+Nature%27s+Dangerous+Decline+%27Unprecedented%27%3B+Species+Extinction+Rates+%27Accelerating%27&rft.date=2019-05-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipbes.net%2Fmedia-release-nature%25e2%2580%2599s-dangerous-decline-%25e2%2580%2598unprecedented%25e2%2580%2599-species-extinction-rates-%25e2%2580%2598accelerating%25e2%2580%2599&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:9-13" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:9_13-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:9_13-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:9_13-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:9_13-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:9_13-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:9_13-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:9_13-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCahillAiello-LammensFisher-ReidHua2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cahill, Abigail E.; Aiello-Lammens, Matthew E.; Fisher-Reid, M. Caitlin; Hua, Xia; Karanewsky, Caitlin J.; Yeong Ryu, Hae; Sbeglia, Gena C.; Spagnolo, Fabrizio; Waldron, John B.; Warsi, Omar; Wiens, John J. (2013-01-07). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3574421" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How does climate change cause extinction?"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>280</b> (1750): 20121890. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2012.1890" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1098/rspb.2012.1890</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3574421" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3574421</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23075836" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">23075836</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=How+does+climate+change+cause+extinction%3F&rft.volume=280&rft.issue=1750&rft.pages=20121890&rft.date=2013-01-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3574421%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23075836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2012.1890&rft.aulast=Cahill&rft.aufirst=Abigail+E.&rft.au=Aiello-Lammens%2C+Matthew+E.&rft.au=Fisher-Reid%2C+M.+Caitlin&rft.au=Hua%2C+Xia&rft.au=Karanewsky%2C+Caitlin+J.&rft.au=Yeong+Ryu%2C+Hae&rft.au=Sbeglia%2C+Gena+C.&rft.au=Spagnolo%2C+Fabrizio&rft.au=Waldron%2C+John+B.&rft.au=Warsi%2C+Omar&rft.au=Wiens%2C+John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3574421&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-14" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCaroRowe2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Caro, Tim; Rowe, Zeke; et al. (2022). "An inconvenient misconception: Climate change is not the principal driver of biodiversity loss". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_Letters" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Conservation Letters">Conservation Letters</a></i>. <b>15</b> (3): e12868. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fconl.12868" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/conl.12868</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246172852" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">246172852</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Letters&rft.atitle=An+inconvenient+misconception%3A+Climate+change+is+not+the+principal+driver+of+biodiversity+loss&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=e12868&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fconl.12868&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246172852%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Caro&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Rowe%2C+Zeke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-15" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/species-and-climate-change#:~:text=Species%20are%20already%20being%20impacted,the%20likelihood%20of%20their%20extinction" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Species and Climate Change"</a>. <i>IUCN Issues Brief</i>. IUCN. October 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IUCN+Issues+Brief&rft.atitle=Species+and+Climate+Change&rft.date=2021-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iucn.org%2Fresources%2Fissues-brief%2Fspecies-and-climate-change%23%3A~%3Atext%3DSpecies%2520are%2520already%2520being%2520impacted%2Cthe%2520likelihood%2520of%2520their%2520extinction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-16" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_16-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services</a>. In <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability</a> [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 257-260 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004</span></li><li id="cite_note-17" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/08/Edited-SPM_Approved_Microsite_FINAL.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems:Summary for Policymakers"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IPCC+Special+Report+on+Climate+Change%2C+Desertification%2C+Land+Degradation%2C+Sustainable+Land+Management%2C+Food+Security%2C+and+Greenhouse+gas+fluxes+in+Terrestrial+Ecosystems%3ASummary+for+Policymakers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Fsite%2Fassets%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F08%2FEdited-SPM_Approved_Microsite_FINAL.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-18" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Summary for Policymakers — Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Alan (January 2003). "Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants". <i>Nature</i>. <b>421</b> (6918): 57–60. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.421...57R" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2003Natur.421...57R</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01333" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/nature01333</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12511952" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">12511952</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205209602" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">205209602</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Fingerprints+of+global+warming+on+wild+animals+and+plants&rft.volume=421&rft.issue=6918&rft.pages=57-60&rft.date=2003-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01333&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205209602%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12511952&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.421...57R&rft.aulast=Root&rft.aufirst=Terry+L.&rft.au=Price%2C+Jeff+T.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Kimberly+R.&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Stephen+H.&rft.au=Rosenzweig%2C+Cynthia&rft.au=Pounds%2C+J.+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-20" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFRosenzweigCasassaKarolyImeson2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Rosenzweig, C.; Casassa, G.; Karoly, D. J.; Imeson, A.; Liu, C.; Menzel, A.; Rawlins, S.; Root, T. L.; Seguin, B.; Tryjanowski, P. (2007). <a class="external text" href="https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/33180/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural and managed systems"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2007-12-28</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Snowy+Owl&rft.pub=University+of+Alaska&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faknhp.uaa.alaska.edu%2Fzoology%2Fspecies_ADFG%2FADFG_PDFs%2FBirds%2FSnowy%2520Owl_ADFG_final_2006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-27" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMillsZimovaOylerRunning2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Mills, L. Scott; Zimova, Marketa; Oyler, Jared; Running, Steven; Abatzoglou, John T.; Lukacs, Paul M. (15 April 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3645584" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Camouflage mismatch in seasonal coat color due to decreased snow duration"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>110</b> (18): 7360–7365. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PNAS..110.7360M" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2013PNAS..110.7360M</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1222724110" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.1222724110</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3645584" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3645584</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23589881" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">23589881</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Camouflage+mismatch+in+seasonal+coat+color+due+to+decreased+snow+duration&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=7360-7365&rft.date=2013-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3645584%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23589881&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1222724110&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PNAS..110.7360M&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=L.+Scott&rft.au=Zimova%2C+Marketa&rft.au=Oyler%2C+Jared&rft.au=Running%2C+Steven&rft.au=Abatzoglou%2C+John+T.&rft.au=Lukacs%2C+Paul+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3645584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-28" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFLovell2002" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lovell, Jeremy (2002-09-09). <a class="external text" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/09/tech/main521258.shtml" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Warming Could End Antarctic Species"</a>. <i>CBS News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2008-01-02</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBS+News&rft.atitle=Warming+Could+End+Antarctic+Species&rft.date=2002-09-09&rft.aulast=Lovell&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fstories%2F2002%2F09%2F09%2Ftech%2Fmain521258.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-29" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFArendt1997" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Arendt, Jeffrey D. (June 1997). "Adaptive Intrinsic Growth Rates: An Integration Across Taxa". <i>The Quarterly Review of Biology</i>. <b>72</b> (2): 149–177. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.210.7376" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1.1.210.7376</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F419764" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1086/419764</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3036336" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3036336</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1460221" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1460221</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.atitle=Adaptive+Intrinsic+Growth+Rates%3A+An+Integration+Across+Taxa&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=149-177&rft.date=1997-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.210.7376%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1460221%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3036336%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F419764&rft.aulast=Arendt&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-30" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBiroPostBooth2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Biro, P. A.; Post, J. R.; Booth, D. J. (29 May 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1887605" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Mechanisms for climate-induced mortality of fish populations in whole-lake experiments"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>104</b> (23): 9715–9719. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.9715B" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2007PNAS..104.9715B</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0701638104" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.0701638104</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1887605" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1887605</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17535908" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">17535908</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Mechanisms+for+climate-induced+mortality+of+fish+populations+in+whole-lake+experiments&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=9715-9719&rft.date=2007-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1887605%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17535908&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0701638104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..104.9715B&rft.aulast=Biro&rft.aufirst=P.+A.&rft.au=Post%2C+J.+R.&rft.au=Booth%2C+D.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1887605&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:42-31" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:42_31-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:42_31-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:42_31-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:42_31-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:42_31-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-:42_31-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBryant2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bryant, M. D. (14 January 2009). "Global climate change and potential effects on Pacific salmonids in freshwater ecosystems of southeast Alaska". <i>Climatic Change</i>. <b>95</b> (1–2): 169–193. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ClCh...95..169B" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2009ClCh...95..169B</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-008-9530-x" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10584-008-9530-x</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14764515" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">14764515</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climatic+Change&rft.atitle=Global+climate+change+and+potential+effects+on+Pacific+salmonids+in+freshwater+ecosystems+of+southeast+Alaska&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=169-193&rft.date=2009-01-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14764515%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-008-9530-x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009ClCh...95..169B&rft.aulast=Bryant&rft.aufirst=M.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2020)-32" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2020)_32-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2020)_32-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSalesCulotPires2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sales, L. P.; Culot, L.; Pires, M. (July 2020). "Climate niche mismatch and the collapse of primate seed dispersal services in the Amazon". <i>Biological Conservation</i>. <b>247</b> (9): 108628. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2020.108628" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108628</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219764670" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">219764670</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Conservation&rft.atitle=Climate+niche+mismatch+and+the+collapse+of+primate+seed+dispersal+services+in+the+Amazon&rft.volume=247&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=108628&rft.date=2020-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2020.108628&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219764670%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sales&rft.aufirst=L.+P.&rft.au=Culot%2C+L.&rft.au=Pires%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-33" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMalhiFranklinSeddonSolan2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Malhi, Yadvinder; Franklin, Janet; Seddon, Nathalie; Solan, Martin; Turner, Monica G.; Field, Christopher B.; Knowlton, Nancy (2020-01-27). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7017779" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities and solutions"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>375</b>(1794): 20190104. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2019.0104" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1098/rstb.2019.0104</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8436" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0962-8436</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7017779" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7017779</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31983329" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">31983329</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Climate+change+and+ecosystems%3A+threats%2C+opportunities+and+solutions&rft.volume=375&rft.issue=1794&rft.pages=20190104&rft.date=2020-01-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7017779%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31983329&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2019.0104&rft.aulast=Malhi&rft.aufirst=Yadvinder&rft.au=Franklin%2C+Janet&rft.au=Seddon%2C+Nathalie&rft.au=Solan%2C+Martin&rft.au=Turner%2C+Monica+G.&rft.au=Field%2C+Christopher+B.&rft.au=Knowlton%2C+Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7017779&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2021)-34" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2021)_34-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSalesRodriguesMasiero2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sales, L. P.; Rodrigues, L.; Masiero, R. (November 2020). "Climate change drives spatial mismatch and threatens the biotic interactions of the Brazil nut". <i>Global Ecology and Biogeography</i>. <b>30</b> (1): 117–127. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgeb.13200" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/geb.13200</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228875365" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">228875365</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Ecology+and+Biogeography&rft.atitle=Climate+change+drives+spatial+mismatch+and+threatens+the+biotic+interactions+of+the+Brazil+nut&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=117-127&rft.date=2020-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fgeb.13200&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228875365%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sales&rft.aufirst=L.+P.&rft.au=Rodrigues%2C+L.&rft.au=Masiero%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-35" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFTrisosMerowPigot2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Trisos, Christopher H.; Merow, Cory; Pigot, Alex L. (8 April 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2189-9" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The projected timing of abrupt ecological disruption from climate change"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>580</b> (7804): 496–501. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Natur.580..496T" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2020Natur.580..496T</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-020-2189-9" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41586-020-2189-9</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32322063" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">32322063</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256822113" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">256822113</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+projected+timing+of+abrupt+ecological+disruption+from+climate+change&rft.volume=580&rft.issue=7804&rft.pages=496-501&rft.date=2020-04-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-020-2189-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256822113%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32322063&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Natur.580..496T&rft.aulast=Trisos&rft.aufirst=Christopher+H.&rft.au=Merow%2C+Cory&rft.au=Pigot%2C+Alex+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41586-020-2189-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Warren2018a-37" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Warren2018a_37-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWarrenPriceVanDerWalCornelius2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Warren, R.; Price, J.; VanDerWal, J.; Cornelius, S.; Sohl, H. (March 14, 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-018-2158-6" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The implications of the United Nations Paris Agreement on climate change for globally significant biodiversity areas"</a>. <i>Climatic Change</i>. <b>147</b> (3–4): 395–409. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018ClCh..147..395W" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2018ClCh..147..395W</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-018-2158-6" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10584-018-2158-6</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158490978" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">158490978</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climatic+Change&rft.atitle=The+implications+of+the+United+Nations+Paris+Agreement+on+climate+change+for+globally+significant+biodiversity+areas&rft.volume=147&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=395-409&rft.date=2018-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158490978%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-018-2158-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018ClCh..147..395W&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Price%2C+J.&rft.au=VanDerWal%2C+J.&rft.au=Cornelius%2C+S.&rft.au=Sohl%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-018-2158-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Thomas2004-38" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Thomas2004_38-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFThomasCameronGreenBakkenes2004" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BF, De Siqueira MF, Grainger A, Hannah L, Hughes L, Huntley B, Van Jaarsveld AS, Midgley GF, Miles L, Ortega-Huerta MA, Peterson AT, Phillips OL, Williams SE (January 2004). <a class="external text" href="https://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/extinction-risk-from-climate-change(8acc0641-8055-4542-a872-6a80d9ce6418).html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Extinction risk from climate change"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>427</b> (6970): 145–8. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Natur.427..145T" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2004Natur.427..145T</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature02121" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/nature02121</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14712274" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">14712274</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:969382" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; 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counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Araujo2004_39-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAraújoWhittakerLadleErhard2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Araújo MB, Whittaker RJ, Ladle RJ, Erhard M (2005). 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counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-pmid15237466_42-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFHarteOstlingGreenKinzig2004" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Harte J, Ostling A, Green JL, Kinzig A (July 2004). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature02718" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Biodiversity conservation: climate change and extinction risk"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>430</b> (6995): 3 p following 33, discussion following 33. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; 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counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFThomasWilliamsCameronGreen2004" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Thomas CD, Williams SE, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BF, Ferriera de Siqueira M, Grainger A, Hannah L (2004). <a class="external text" href="https://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/biodiversity-conservation-uncertainty-in-predictions-of-extinction-riskeffects-of-changes-in-climate-and-land-useclimate-change-and-extinction-risk-reply(7cde3ada-1fc0-4283-8d8a-a124d24bc86e).html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Uncertainty in predictions of extinction risk/Effects of changes in climate and land use/Climate change and extinction risk (reply)"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>430</b> (6995): 34. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature02719" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/nature02719</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; 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counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMacleanWilson2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Maclean, Ilya M. D.; Wilson, Robert J. (July 11, 2011). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3145734" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Recent ecological responses to climate change support predictions of high extinction risk"</a>. <i>PNAS</i>. <b>108</b> (30): 12337–12342. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..10812337M" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; 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counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFParry2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Parry W (6 January 2012). <a class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2012/0106/Climate-change-models-flawed-extinction-rate-likely-higher-than-predicted" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change models flawed, extinction rate likely higher than predicted"</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csmonitor.com" style="background: none; 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overflow-wrap: break-word;">Román-Palacios C, Wiens JJ (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7049143" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Recent responses to climate change reveal the drivers of species extinction and survival"</a>. <i>PNAS</i>. <b>117</b> (8): 4211–4217. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PNAS..117.4211R" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2020PNAS..117.4211R</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1913007117" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.1913007117</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7049143" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7049143</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32041877" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">32041877</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=Recent+responses+to+climate+change+reveal+the+drivers+of+species+extinction+and+survival&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=4211-4217&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7049143%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32041877&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1913007117&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020PNAS..117.4211R&rft.aulast=Rom%C3%A1n-Palacios&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Wiens%2C+JJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7049143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-50" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-50" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFRice2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Rice, Doyle (February 14, 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/02/14/climate-change-study-plant-animal-extinction/4760646002/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"One-third of all plant and animal species could be extinct in 50 years, study warns"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Today" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="USA Today">USA Today</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">February 15,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=One-third+of+all+plant+and+animal+species+could+be+extinct+in+50+years%2C+study+warns&rft.date=2020-02-14&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=Doyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2Fnation%2F2020%2F02%2F14%2Fclimate-change-study-plant-animal-extinction%2F4760646002%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-AR6_WGII_FAQ2.1-51" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-AR6_WGII_FAQ2.1_51-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services</a>. In <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability</a> [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 221-222 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004</span></li><li id="cite_note-52" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFKaiho2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kaiho, Kunio (July 22, 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/19/3369/2022/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Relationship between extinction magnitude and climate change during major marine and terrestrial animal crises"</a>. <i>Biogeosciences</i>. <b>19</b> (14): 3369–3380. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022BGeo...19.3369K" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2022BGeo...19.3369K</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fbg-19-3369-2022" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.5194/bg-19-3369-2022</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biogeosciences&rft.atitle=Relationship+between+extinction+magnitude+and+climate+change+during+major+marine+and+terrestrial+animal+crises&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=3369-3380&rft.date=2022-07-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Fbg-19-3369-2022&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022BGeo...19.3369K&rft.aulast=Kaiho&rft.aufirst=Kunio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbg.copernicus.org%2Farticles%2F19%2F3369%2F2022%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Kaiho2022-53" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Kaiho2022_53-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Kaiho2022_53-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFKaiho2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kaiho, Kunio (23 November 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9684554" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Extinction magnitude of animals in the near future"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 19593. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NatSR..1219593K" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2022NatSR..1219593K</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-022-23369-5" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9684554" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">9684554</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36418340" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">36418340</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Extinction+magnitude+of+animals+in+the+near+future&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19593&rft.date=2022-11-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9684554%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36418340&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-022-23369-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022NatSR..1219593K&rft.aulast=Kaiho&rft.aufirst=Kunio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9684554&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Isbell2022-54" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Isbell2022_54-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFIsbellBalvaneraMoriHe2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Isbell, Forest; Balvanera, Patricia; Mori, Akira S; He, Jin-Sheng; Bullock, James M; Regmi, Ganga Ram; Seabloom, Eric W; Ferrier, Simon; Sala, Osvaldo E; Guerrero-Ramírez, Nathaly R; Tavella, Julia; Larkin, Daniel J; Schmid, Bernhard; Outhwaite, Charlotte L; Pramual, Pairot; Borer, Elizabeth T; Loreau, Michel; Crossby Omotoriogun, Taiwo; Obura, David O; Anderson, Maggie; Portales-Reyes, Cristina; Kirkman, Kevin; Vergara, Pablo M; Clark, Adam Thomas; Komatsu, Kimberly J; Petchey, Owen L; Weiskopf, Sarah R; Williams, Laura J; Collins, Scott L; Eisenhauer, Nico; Trisos, Christopher H; Renard, Delphine; Wright, Alexandra J; Tripathi, Poonam; Cowles, Jane; Byrnes, Jarrett EK; Reich, Peter B; Purvis, Andy; Sharip, Zati; O’Connor, Mary I; Kazanski, Clare E; Haddad, Nick M; Soto, Eulogio H; Dee, Laura E; Díaz, Sandra; Zirbel, Chad R; Avolio, Meghan L; Wang, Shaopeng; Ma, Zhiyuan; Liang, Jingjing Liang; Farah, Hanan C; Johnson, Justin Andrew; Miller, Brian W; Hautier, Yann; Smith, Melinda D; Knops, Johannes MH; Myers, Bonnie JE; Harmáčková, Zuzana V; Cortés, Jorge; Harfoot, Michael BJ; Gonzalez, Andrew; Newbold, Tim; Oehri, Jacqueline; Mazón, Marina; Dobbs, Cynnamon; Palmer, Meredith S (18 July 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2536" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Expert perspectives on global biodiversity loss and its drivers and impacts on people"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 94–103. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ffee.2536" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1002/fee.2536</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250659953" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">250659953</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+the+Environment&rft.atitle=Expert+perspectives+on+global+biodiversity+loss+and+its+drivers+and+impacts+on+people&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=94-103&rft.date=2022-07-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Ffee.2536&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A250659953%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Isbell&rft.aufirst=Forest&rft.au=Balvanera%2C+Patricia&rft.au=Mori%2C+Akira+S&rft.au=He%2C+Jin-Sheng&rft.au=Bullock%2C+James+M&rft.au=Regmi%2C+Ganga+Ram&rft.au=Seabloom%2C+Eric+W&rft.au=Ferrier%2C+Simon&rft.au=Sala%2C+Osvaldo+E&rft.au=Guerrero-Ram%C3%ADrez%2C+Nathaly+R&rft.au=Tavella%2C+Julia&rft.au=Larkin%2C+Daniel+J&rft.au=Schmid%2C+Bernhard&rft.au=Outhwaite%2C+Charlotte+L&rft.au=Pramual%2C+Pairot&rft.au=Borer%2C+Elizabeth+T&rft.au=Loreau%2C+Michel&rft.au=Crossby+Omotoriogun%2C+Taiwo&rft.au=Obura%2C+David+O&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Maggie&rft.au=Portales-Reyes%2C+Cristina&rft.au=Kirkman%2C+Kevin&rft.au=Vergara%2C+Pablo+M&rft.au=Clark%2C+Adam+Thomas&rft.au=Komatsu%2C+Kimberly+J&rft.au=Petchey%2C+Owen+L&rft.au=Weiskopf%2C+Sarah+R&rft.au=Williams%2C+Laura+J&rft.au=Collins%2C+Scott+L&rft.au=Eisenhauer%2C+Nico&rft.au=Trisos%2C+Christopher+H&rft.au=Renard%2C+Delphine&rft.au=Wright%2C+Alexandra+J&rft.au=Tripathi%2C+Poonam&rft.au=Cowles%2C+Jane&rft.au=Byrnes%2C+Jarrett+EK&rft.au=Reich%2C+Peter+B&rft.au=Purvis%2C+Andy&rft.au=Sharip%2C+Zati&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Connor%2C+Mary+I&rft.au=Kazanski%2C+Clare+E&rft.au=Haddad%2C+Nick+M&rft.au=Soto%2C+Eulogio+H&rft.au=Dee%2C+Laura+E&rft.au=D%C3%ADaz%2C+Sandra&rft.au=Zirbel%2C+Chad+R&rft.au=Avolio%2C+Meghan+L&rft.au=Wang%2C+Shaopeng&rft.au=Ma%2C+Zhiyuan&rft.au=Liang%2C+Jingjing+Liang&rft.au=Farah%2C+Hanan+C&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Justin+Andrew&rft.au=Miller%2C+Brian+W&rft.au=Hautier%2C+Yann&rft.au=Smith%2C+Melinda+D&rft.au=Knops%2C+Johannes+MH&rft.au=Myers%2C+Bonnie+JE&rft.au=Harm%C3%A1%C4%8Dkov%C3%A1%2C+Zuzana+V&rft.au=Cort%C3%A9s%2C+Jorge&rft.au=Harfoot%2C+Michael+BJ&rft.au=Gonzalez%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Newbold%2C+Tim&rft.au=Oehri%2C+Jacqueline&rft.au=Maz%C3%B3n%2C+Marina&rft.au=Dobbs%2C+Cynnamon&rft.au=Palmer%2C+Meredith+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Ffee.2536&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-55" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-55" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWetzelBeissmannPennJetz2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wetzel, Florian T.; Beissmann, Helmut; Penn, Dustin J.; Jetz, Walter (February 26, 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12185" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Vulnerability of terrestrial island vertebrates to projected sea-level rise"</a>. <i>Global Change Biology</i>. <b>19</b> (7): 2058–2070. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013GCBio..19.2058W" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2013GCBio..19.2058W</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgcb.12185" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/gcb.12185</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23504764" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">23504764</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9528440" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">9528440</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Change+Biology&rft.atitle=Vulnerability+of+terrestrial+island+vertebrates+to+projected+sea-level+rise&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2058-2070&rft.date=2013-02-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.12185&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9528440%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23504764&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013GCBio..19.2058W&rft.aulast=Wetzel&rft.aufirst=Florian+T.&rft.au=Beissmann%2C+Helmut&rft.au=Penn%2C+Dustin+J.&rft.au=Jetz%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.12185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-56" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-56" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFKumarShafapour_Tehrany2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kumar, Lalit; Shafapour Tehrany, Mahyat (13 July 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9684554" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change impacts on the threatened terrestrial vertebrates of the Pacific Islands"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 19593. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NatSR..1219593K" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2022NatSR..1219593K</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-022-23369-5" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9684554" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">9684554</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36418340" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">36418340</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253764147" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">253764147</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Climate+change+impacts+on+the+threatened+terrestrial+vertebrates+of+the+Pacific+Islands&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19593&rft.date=2017-07-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9684554%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A253764147%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022NatSR..1219593K&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36418340&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-022-23369-5&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Lalit&rft.au=Shafapour+Tehrany%2C+Mahyat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9684554&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Warren2018b-57" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Warren2018b_57-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Warren2018b_57-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Warren2018b_57-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWarrenPriceGrahamForstenhaeusler2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Warren, R.; Price, J.; Graham, E.; Forstenhaeusler, N.; VanDerWal, J. (18 May 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aar3646" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The projected effect on insects, vertebrates, and plants of limiting global warming to 1.5°C rather than 2°C"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>360</b> (6390): 791–795. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aar3646" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1126/science.aar3646</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29773751" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">29773751</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21722550" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">21722550</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+projected+effect+on+insects%2C+vertebrates%2C+and+plants+of+limiting+global+warming+to+1.5%C2%B0C+rather+than+2%C2%B0C&rft.volume=360&rft.issue=6390&rft.pages=791-795&rft.date=2018-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21722550%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29773751&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aar3646&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Price%2C+J.&rft.au=Graham%2C+E.&rft.au=Forstenhaeusler%2C+N.&rft.au=VanDerWal%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aar3646&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-58" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-58" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMuraliIwamuraMeiriRoll2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Murali, Gopal; Iwamura, Takuya Iwamura; Meiri, Shai; Roll, Uri (January 18, 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05606-z" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Future temperature extremes threaten land vertebrates"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>615</b> (7952): 461–467. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Natur.615..461M" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2023Natur.615..461M</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05606-z" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41586-022-05606-z</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36653454" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">36653454</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255974196" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">255974196</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Future+temperature+extremes+threaten+land+vertebrates&rft.volume=615&rft.issue=7952&rft.pages=461-467&rft.date=2023-01-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05606-z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255974196%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36653454&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023Natur.615..461M&rft.aulast=Murali&rft.aufirst=Gopal&rft.au=Iwamura%2C+Takuya+Iwamura&rft.au=Meiri%2C+Shai&rft.au=Roll%2C+Uri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41586-022-05606-z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Liu2023-59" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Liu2023_59-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Liu2023_59-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Liu2023_59-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Liu2023_59-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Liu2023_59-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLiuGuoXuShi2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Liu, Xiaoping; Guo, Renyun; Xu, Xiaocong; Shi, Qian; Li, Xia; Yu, Haipeng; Ren, Yu; Huang, Jianping (April 3, 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022EF003162" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Future Increase in Aridity Drives Abrupt Biodiversity Loss Among Terrestrial Vertebrate Species"</a>. <i>Earth's Future</i>. <b>11</b> (4): e2022EF003162. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023EaFut..1103162L" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2023EaFut..1103162L</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2022EF003162" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1029/2022EF003162</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257934225" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">257934225</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth%27s+Future&rft.atitle=Future+Increase+in+Aridity+Drives+Abrupt+Biodiversity+Loss+Among+Terrestrial+Vertebrate+Species&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e2022EF003162&rft.date=2023-04-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A257934225%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2022EF003162&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023EaFut..1103162L&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Xiaoping&rft.au=Guo%2C+Renyun&rft.au=Xu%2C+Xiaocong&rft.au=Shi%2C+Qian&rft.au=Li%2C+Xia&rft.au=Yu%2C+Haipeng&rft.au=Ren%2C+Yu&rft.au=Huang%2C+Jianping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1029%2F2022EF003162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Feijó2022-60" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Feij%C3%B32022_60-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Feij%C3%B32022_60-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFFeijoKarlssonTianYang2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Feijo, Anderson; Karlsson, Catharina M.; Tian, Russell; Yang, Qisen; Hughes, Alice C. (August 12, 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666900522000132" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Extreme-sized anurans are more prone to climate-driven extinctions"</a>. <i>Climate Change Ecology</i>. <b>4</b>: 100062. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecochg.2022.100062" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.ecochg.2022.100062</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251551213" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">251551213</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climate+Change+Ecology&rft.atitle=Extreme-sized+anurans+are+more+prone+to+climate-driven+extinctions&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=100062&rft.date=2022-08-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ecochg.2022.100062&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251551213%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Feijo&rft.aufirst=Anderson&rft.au=Karlsson%2C+Catharina+M.&rft.au=Tian%2C+Russell&rft.au=Yang%2C+Qisen&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Alice+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS2666900522000132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Foden2013-61" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Foden2013_61-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Foden2013_61-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Foden2013_61-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFFodenButchartStuartVié2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Foden, Wendy B.; Butchart, Stuart H. M.; Stuart, Simon N.; Vié, Jean-Christophe; Akçakaya, H. Resit; Angulo, Ariadne; DeVantier, Lyndon M.; Gutsche, Alexander; Turak, Emre; Cao, Long; Donner, Simon D.; Katariya, Vineet; Bernard, Rodolphe; Holland, Robert A.; Hughes, Adrian F.; O’Hanlon, Susannah E.; Garnett, Stephen T.; Şekercioğlu, Çagan H.; Mace, Georgina M. (June 12, 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3680427" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Identifying the World's Most Climate Change Vulnerable Species: A Systematic Trait-Based Assessment of all Birds, Amphibians and Corals"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>8</b> (6): e65427. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PLoSO...865427F" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2013PLoSO...865427F</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0065427" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1371/journal.pone.0065427</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3680427" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3680427</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23950785" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">23950785</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Identifying+the+World%27s+Most+Climate+Change+Vulnerable+Species%3A+A+Systematic+Trait-Based+Assessment+of+all+Birds%2C+Amphibians+and+Corals&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e65427&rft.date=2013-06-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3680427%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23950785&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0065427&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PLoSO...865427F&rft.aulast=Foden&rft.aufirst=Wendy+B.&rft.au=Butchart%2C+Stuart+H.+M.&rft.au=Stuart%2C+Simon+N.&rft.au=Vi%C3%A9%2C+Jean-Christophe&rft.au=Ak%C3%A7akaya%2C+H.+Resit&rft.au=Angulo%2C+Ariadne&rft.au=DeVantier%2C+Lyndon+M.&rft.au=Gutsche%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Turak%2C+Emre&rft.au=Cao%2C+Long&rft.au=Donner%2C+Simon+D.&rft.au=Katariya%2C+Vineet&rft.au=Bernard%2C+Rodolphe&rft.au=Holland%2C+Robert+A.&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Adrian+F.&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Hanlon%2C+Susannah+E.&rft.au=Garnett%2C+Stephen+T.&rft.au=%C5%9Eekercio%C4%9Flu%2C+%C3%87agan+H.&rft.au=Mace%2C+Georgina+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3680427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-62" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-62" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFŞekercioğluPrimackWormworth2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Şekercioğlu, Çağan H.; Primack, Richard B.; Wormworth, Janice (April 2012). "The effects of climate change on tropical birds". <i>Biological Conservation</i>. <b>148</b> (1): 1–18. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2011.10.019" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.biocon.2011.10.019</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Conservation&rft.atitle=The+effects+of+climate+change+on+tropical+birds&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2012-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2011.10.019&rft.aulast=%C5%9Eekercio%C4%9Flu&rft.aufirst=%C3%87a%C4%9Fan+H.&rft.au=Primack%2C+Richard+B.&rft.au=Wormworth%2C+Janice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-63" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLiaoTimmZhangAtkinson2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Liao, Wei; Timm, Oliver Elison; Zhang, Chunxi; Atkinson, Carter T.; LaPointe, Dennis A.; Samuel, Michael D. (June 25, 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13005" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Will a warmer and wetter future cause extinction of native Hawaiian forest birds?"</a>. <i>Global Change Biology</i>. <b>21</b> (12): 4342–4352. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015GCBio..21.4342L" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2015GCBio..21.4342L</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgcb.13005" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/gcb.13005</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26111019" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">26111019</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21055807" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">21055807</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Change+Biology&rft.atitle=Will+a+warmer+and+wetter+future+cause+extinction+of+native+Hawaiian+forest+birds%3F&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4342-4352&rft.date=2015-06-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.13005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21055807%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26111019&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015GCBio..21.4342L&rft.aulast=Liao&rft.aufirst=Wei&rft.au=Timm%2C+Oliver+Elison&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Chunxi&rft.au=Atkinson%2C+Carter+T.&rft.au=LaPointe%2C+Dennis+A.&rft.au=Samuel%2C+Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.13005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-64" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-64" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBatemanTaylorWilseyWu2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bateman, Brooke L.; Taylor, Lotem; Wilsey, Chad; Wu, Joanna; LeBaron, Geoffrey S.; Langham, Gary (2 July 2020). "North American birds require mitigation and adaptation to reduce vulnerability to climate change". <i>Conservation Science and Practice</i>. <b>2</b> (8): e242. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fcsp2.242" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/csp2.242</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Science+and+Practice&rft.atitle=North+American+birds+require+mitigation+and+adaptation+to+reduce+vulnerability+to+climate+change&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e242&rft.date=2020-07-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fcsp2.242&rft.aulast=Bateman&rft.aufirst=Brooke+L.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Lotem&rft.au=Wilsey%2C+Chad&rft.au=Wu%2C+Joanna&rft.au=LeBaron%2C+Geoffrey+S.&rft.au=Langham%2C+Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-65" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-65" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBatemanTaylorWilseyWu2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bateman, Brooke L.; Taylor, Lotem; Wilsey, Chad; Wu, Joanna; LeBaron, Geoffrey S.; Langham, Gary (2 July 2020). "Risk to North American birds from climate change-related threats". <i>Conservation Science and Practice</i>. <b>2</b>(8): e243. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fcsp2.243" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/csp2.243</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225387919" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">225387919</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Science+and+Practice&rft.atitle=Risk+to+North+American+birds+from+climate+change-related+threats&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e243&rft.date=2020-07-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fcsp2.243&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225387919%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bateman&rft.aufirst=Brooke+L.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Lotem&rft.au=Wilsey%2C+Chad&rft.au=Wu%2C+Joanna&rft.au=LeBaron%2C+Geoffrey+S.&rft.au=Langham%2C+Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-66" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-66" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.audubon.org/survival-degrees-about-study" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Survival By Degrees: About the Study"</a>. <i>Audubon</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(June 24, 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6628835" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Chronic, sublethal effects of high temperatures will cause severe declines in southern African arid-zone birds during the 21st century"</a>. <i>PNAS</i>. <b>116</b> (28): 14065–14070. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PNAS..11614065C" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2019PNAS..11614065C</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1821312116" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.1821312116</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6628835" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">6628835</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31235571" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">31235571</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=Chronic%2C+sublethal+effects+of+high+temperatures+will+cause+severe+declines+in+southern+African+arid-zone+birds+during+the+21st+century&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=28&rft.pages=14065-14070&rft.date=2019-06-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6628835%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31235571&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1821312116&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PNAS..11614065C&rft.aulast=Conradie&rft.aufirst=Shannon+R.&rft.au=Woodborne%2C+Stephan+M.&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+Susan+J.&rft.au=McKechnie%2C+Andrew+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6628835&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-68" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-68" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFPattinsonvan_de_VenFinnieNupen2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Pattinson, Nicholas B.; van de Ven, Tanja M. 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(May 19, 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffevo.2022.842264" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Collapse of Breeding Success in Desert-Dwelling Hornbills Evident Within a Single Decade"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</i>. <b>10</b>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffevo.2022.842264" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.3389/fevo.2022.842264</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Collapse+of+Breeding+Success+in+Desert-Dwelling+Hornbills+Evident+Within+a+Single+Decade&rft.volume=10&rft.date=2022-05-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffevo.2022.842264&rft.aulast=Pattinson&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+B.&rft.au=van+de+Ven%2C+Tanja+M.+F.+N.&rft.au=Finnie%2C+Mike+J.&rft.au=Nupen%2C+Lisa+J.&rft.au=McKechnie%2C+Andrew+E.&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+Susan+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffevo.2022.842264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-69" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-69" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFKitanovska2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kitanovska, Simona (May 19, 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.newsweek.com/colorful-bird-famously-featured-lion-king-nearly-going-extinct-1708288" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Colorful Bird Famously Featured in 'The Lion King' Nearly Going Extinct"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(May 19, 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8133463" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climatic change and extinction risk of two globally threatened Ethiopian endemic bird species"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>16</b> (5): e0249633. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PLoSO..1649633B" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2021PLoSO..1649633B</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0249633" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1371/journal.pone.0249633</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8133463" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">8133463</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34010302" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">34010302</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Climatic+change+and+extinction+risk+of+two+globally+threatened+Ethiopian+endemic+bird+species&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e0249633&rft.date=2021-05-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8133463%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34010302&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0249633&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021PLoSO..1649633B&rft.aulast=Bladon&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rft.au=Donald%2C+Paul+F.&rft.au=Collar%2C+Nigel+J.&rft.au=Denge%2C+Jarso&rft.au=Dadacha%2C+Galgalo&rft.au=Wondafrash%2C+Mengistu&rft.au=Green%2C+Rhys+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8133463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-71" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-71" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLe_BohecDurantGauthier-ClercStenseth2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Le Bohec, C.; Durant, J. M.; Gauthier-Clerc, M.; Stenseth, N. C.; Park, Y.-H.; Pradel, R.; Gremillet, D.; Gendner, J.-P.; Le Maho, Y. (11 February 2008). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2268164" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"King penguin population threatened by Southern Ocean warming"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>105</b> (7): 2493–2497. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..105.2493L" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2008PNAS..105.2493L</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0712031105" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.0712031105</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2268164" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2268164</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18268328" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">18268328</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=King+penguin+population+threatened+by+Southern+Ocean+warming&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2493-2497&rft.date=2008-02-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2268164%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18268328&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0712031105&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..105.2493L&rft.aulast=Le+Bohec&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Durant%2C+J.+M.&rft.au=Gauthier-Clerc%2C+M.&rft.au=Stenseth%2C+N.+C.&rft.au=Park%2C+Y.-H.&rft.au=Pradel%2C+R.&rft.au=Gremillet%2C+D.&rft.au=Gendner%2C+J.-P.&rft.au=Le+Maho%2C+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2268164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-72" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-72" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCristofariLiuBonadonnaCherel2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cristofari, Robin; Liu, Xiaoming; Bonadonna, Francesco; Cherel, Yves; Pistorius, Pierre; Maho, Yvon Le; Raybaud, Virginie; Stenseth, Nils Christian; Le Bohec, Céline; Trucchi, Emiliano (26 February 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0084-2" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate-driven range shifts of the king penguin in a fragmented ecosystem"</a>. <i>Nature Climate Change</i>. <b>8</b> (3): 245–251. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018NatCC...8..245C" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2018NatCC...8..245C</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41558-018-0084-2" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41558-018-0084-2</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53793443" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">53793443</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Climate-driven+range+shifts+of+the+king+penguin+in+a+fragmented+ecosystem&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=245-251&rft.date=2018-02-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53793443%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41558-018-0084-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018NatCC...8..245C&rft.aulast=Cristofari&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft.au=Liu%2C+Xiaoming&rft.au=Bonadonna%2C+Francesco&rft.au=Cherel%2C+Yves&rft.au=Pistorius%2C+Pierre&rft.au=Maho%2C+Yvon+Le&rft.au=Raybaud%2C+Virginie&rft.au=Stenseth%2C+Nils+Christian&rft.au=Le+Bohec%2C+C%C3%A9line&rft.au=Trucchi%2C+Emiliano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41558-018-0084-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-73" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-73" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/feb/26/antarcticas-king-penguins-could-disappear-by-the-end-of-the-century" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Antarctica's king penguins 'could disappear' by the end of the century"</a>. <i>the Guardian</i>. 2018-02-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2022-05-18</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Antarctica%27s+king+penguins+%27could+disappear%27+by+the+end+of+the+century&rft.date=2018-02-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2018%2Ffeb%2F26%2Fantarcticas-king-penguins-could-disappear-by-the-end-of-the-century&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-74" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-74" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jan/30/penguins-suffering-climate-change-scientists" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Penguins suffering from climate change, scientists say"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. January 30, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">30 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Penguins+suffering+from+climate+change%2C+scientists+say&rft.date=2014-01-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2014%2Fjan%2F30%2Fpenguins-suffering-climate-change-scientists&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Fountain-75" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Fountain_75-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Fountain_75-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFFountain2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Fountain, Henry (January 29, 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/30/science/earth/climate-change-taking-toll-on-penguins-study-finds.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"For Already Vulnerable Penguins, Study Finds Climate Change Is Another Danger"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">30 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=For+Already+Vulnerable+Penguins%2C+Study+Finds+Climate+Change+Is+Another+Danger&rft.date=2014-01-29&rft.aulast=Fountain&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F01%2F30%2Fscience%2Fearth%2Fclimate-change-taking-toll-on-penguins-study-finds.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-76" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-76" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFStryckerWethingtonBorowiczForrest2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Strycker, Noah; Wethington, Michael; Borowicz, Alex; Forrest, Steve; Witharana, Chandi; Hart, Tom; Lynch, Heather J. (10 November 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-76479-3" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"A global population assessment of the Chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica)"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>10</b>: 19474. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatSR..1019474S" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2020NatSR..1019474S</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-76479-3" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41598-020-76479-3</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33173126" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33173126</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226304009" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">226304009</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=A+global+population+assessment+of+the+Chinstrap+penguin+%28Pygoscelis+antarctica%29&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=19474&rft.date=2020-11-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-020-76479-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226304009%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33173126&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatSR..1019474S&rft.aulast=Strycker&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft.au=Wethington%2C+Michael&rft.au=Borowicz%2C+Alex&rft.au=Forrest%2C+Steve&rft.au=Witharana%2C+Chandi&rft.au=Hart%2C+Tom&rft.au=Lynch%2C+Heather+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41598-020-76479-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-77" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-77" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCiminoLynchSabaOliver2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Cimino MA, Lynch HJ, Saba VS, Oliver MJ (June 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4926113" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Projected asymmetric response of Adélie penguins to Antarctic climate change"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>6</b>: 28785. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatSR...628785C" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2016NatSR...628785C</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep28785" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/srep28785</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4926113" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">4926113</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27352849" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">27352849</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Projected+asymmetric+response+of+Ad%C3%A9lie+penguins+to+Antarctic+climate+change&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=28785&rft.date=2016-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4926113%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27352849&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep28785&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatSR...628785C&rft.aulast=Cimino&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Lynch%2C+HJ&rft.au=Saba%2C+VS&rft.au=Oliver%2C+MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4926113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Wagner2023-78" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Wagner2023_78-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Wagner2023_78-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWagnerSchliepNorthKundel2023" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wagner, Tyler; Schliep, Erin M.; North, Joshua S.; Kundel, Holly; Custer, Christopher A.; Ruzich, Jenna K.; Hansen, Gretchen J. A. (April 3, 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10104529" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Predicting climate change impacts on poikilotherms using physiologically guided species abundance models"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>120</b> (15): e2214199120. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023PNAS..12014199W" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2023PNAS..12014199W</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2214199120" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.2214199120</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10104529" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10104529</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37011195" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">37011195</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Predicting+climate+change+impacts+on+poikilotherms+using+physiologically+guided+species+abundance+models&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=e2214199120&rft.date=2023-04-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10104529%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37011195&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2214199120&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023PNAS..12014199W&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Tyler&rft.au=Schliep%2C+Erin+M.&rft.au=North%2C+Joshua+S.&rft.au=Kundel%2C+Holly&rft.au=Custer%2C+Christopher+A.&rft.au=Ruzich%2C+Jenna+K.&rft.au=Hansen%2C+Gretchen+J.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10104529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-79" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-79" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFJonesCheung2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Jones, Miranda C.; Cheung, William W. L. (1 March 2015). 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overflow-wrap: break-word;">Penn, Justin L.; Deutsch, Curtis (29 April 2022). <span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe9039" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Avoiding ocean mass extinction from climate warming"</a></span>. <i>Science</i>. <b>376</b> (6592): 524–526. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Sci...376..524P" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2022Sci...376..524P</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abe9039" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1126/science.abe9039</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0036-8075</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35482875" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">35482875</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248430574" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">248430574</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Avoiding+ocean+mass+extinction+from+climate+warming&rft.volume=376&rft.issue=6592&rft.pages=524-526&rft.date=2022-04-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248430574%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Sci...376..524P&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abe9039&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35482875&rft.aulast=Penn&rft.aufirst=Justin+L.&rft.au=Deutsch%2C+Curtis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abe9039&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-82" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-82" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBarbarossaBosmansWandersKing2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Barbarossa, Valerio; Bosmans, Joyce; Wanders, Niko; King, Henry; Bierkens, Marc F. P.; Huijbregts, Mark A. J.; Schipper, Aafke M. (March 15, 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7960982" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Threats of global warming to the world's freshwater fishes"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 1701. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatCo..12.1701B" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2021NatCo..12.1701B</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-021-21655-w" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41467-021-21655-w</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7960982" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7960982</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33723261" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33723261</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Threats+of+global+warming+to+the+world%27s+freshwater+fishes&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1701&rft.date=2021-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7960982%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33723261&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-021-21655-w&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021NatCo..12.1701B&rft.aulast=Barbarossa&rft.aufirst=Valerio&rft.au=Bosmans%2C+Joyce&rft.au=Wanders%2C+Niko&rft.au=King%2C+Henry&rft.au=Bierkens%2C+Marc+F.+P.&rft.au=Huijbregts%2C+Mark+A.+J.&rft.au=Schipper%2C+Aafke+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7960982&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-83" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-83" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMolnárBitzHollandKay2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Molnár, Péter K.; Bitz, Cecilia M.; Holland, Marika M.; Kay, Jennifer E.; Penk, Stephanie R.; Amstrup, Steven C. (20 July 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9684554" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Fasting season length sets temporal limits for global polar bear persistence"</a>. <i>Nature Climate Change</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 732–738. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NatSR..1219593K" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2022NatSR..1219593K</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-022-23369-5" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9684554" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">9684554</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36418340" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">36418340</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Fasting+season+length+sets+temporal+limits+for+global+polar+bear+persistence&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=732-738&rft.date=2020-07-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9684554%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36418340&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-022-23369-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022NatSR..1219593K&rft.aulast=Moln%C3%A1r&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A9ter+K.&rft.au=Bitz%2C+Cecilia+M.&rft.au=Holland%2C+Marika+M.&rft.au=Kay%2C+Jennifer+E.&rft.au=Penk%2C+Stephanie+R.&rft.au=Amstrup%2C+Steven+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9684554&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Briggs-bears-84" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Briggs-bears_84-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFBriggs2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Briggs, H (20 July 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53474445" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change: Polar bears could be lost by 2100"</a>. <i>BBC</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">6 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Climate+change%3A+Polar+bears+could+be+lost+by+2100&rft.date=2020-07-20&rft.aulast=Briggs&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-53474445&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-85" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-85" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCarvalhoGrahamBocksbergerMaisels2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Carvalho, Joana S.; Graham, Bruce; Bocksberger, Gaёlle; Maisels, Fiona; Williamson, Elizabeth A.; Wich, Serge; Sop, Tenekwetche; Amarasekaran, Bala; Barca, Benjamin; Barrie, Abdulai; Bergl, Richard A.; Boesch, Christophe; Boesch, Hedwige; Brncic, Terry M.; Buys, Bartelijntje; Chancellor, Rebecca; Danquah, Emmanuel; Doumbé, Osiris A.; Le-Duc, Stephane Y.; Galat-Luong, Anh; Ganas, Jessica; Gatti, Sylvain; Ghiurghi, Andrea; Goedmakers, Annemarie; Granier, Nicolas; Hakizimana, Dismas; Haurez, Barbara; Head, Josephine; Herbinger, Ilka; Hillers, Annika; Jones, Sorrel; Junker, Jessica; Maputla, Nakedi; Manasseh, Eno-Nku; McCarthy, Maureen S.; Molokwu-Odozi, Mary; Morgan, Bethan J.; Nakashima, Yoshihiro; N’Goran, Paul K.; Nixon, Stuart; Nkembi, Louis; Normand, Emmanuelle; Nzooh, Laurent D.Z.; Olson, Sarah H.; Payne, Leon; Petre, Charles-Albert; Piel, Alex K.; Pintea, Lilian; Plumptre, Andrew J.; Rundus, Aaron; Serckx, Adeline; Stewart, Fiona A.; Sunderland-Groves, Jacqueline; Tagg, Nikki; Todd, Angelique; Vosper, Ashley; Wenceslau, José F.C.; Wessling, Erin G.; Willie, Jacob; Kühl, Hjalmar S. (6 June 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ddi.13358" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Predicting range shifts of African apes under global change scenarios"</a>. <i>Diversity and Distributions</i>. <b>27</b> (9): 1663–1679. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fddi.13358" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/ddi.13358</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220253266" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">220253266</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diversity+and+Distributions&rft.atitle=Predicting+range+shifts+of+African+apes+under+global+change+scenarios&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1663-1679&rft.date=2021-06-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fddi.13358&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220253266%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Carvalho&rft.aufirst=Joana+S.&rft.au=Graham%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Bocksberger%2C+Ga%D1%91lle&rft.au=Maisels%2C+Fiona&rft.au=Williamson%2C+Elizabeth+A.&rft.au=Wich%2C+Serge&rft.au=Sop%2C+Tenekwetche&rft.au=Amarasekaran%2C+Bala&rft.au=Barca%2C+Benjamin&rft.au=Barrie%2C+Abdulai&rft.au=Bergl%2C+Richard+A.&rft.au=Boesch%2C+Christophe&rft.au=Boesch%2C+Hedwige&rft.au=Brncic%2C+Terry+M.&rft.au=Buys%2C+Bartelijntje&rft.au=Chancellor%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Danquah%2C+Emmanuel&rft.au=Doumb%C3%A9%2C+Osiris+A.&rft.au=Le-Duc%2C+Stephane+Y.&rft.au=Galat-Luong%2C+Anh&rft.au=Ganas%2C+Jessica&rft.au=Gatti%2C+Sylvain&rft.au=Ghiurghi%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Goedmakers%2C+Annemarie&rft.au=Granier%2C+Nicolas&rft.au=Hakizimana%2C+Dismas&rft.au=Haurez%2C+Barbara&rft.au=Head%2C+Josephine&rft.au=Herbinger%2C+Ilka&rft.au=Hillers%2C+Annika&rft.au=Jones%2C+Sorrel&rft.au=Junker%2C+Jessica&rft.au=Maputla%2C+Nakedi&rft.au=Manasseh%2C+Eno-Nku&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+Maureen+S.&rft.au=Molokwu-Odozi%2C+Mary&rft.au=Morgan%2C+Bethan+J.&rft.au=Nakashima%2C+Yoshihiro&rft.au=N%E2%80%99Goran%2C+Paul+K.&rft.au=Nixon%2C+Stuart&rft.au=Nkembi%2C+Louis&rft.au=Normand%2C+Emmanuelle&rft.au=Nzooh%2C+Laurent+D.Z.&rft.au=Olson%2C+Sarah+H.&rft.au=Payne%2C+Leon&rft.au=Petre%2C+Charles-Albert&rft.au=Piel%2C+Alex+K.&rft.au=Pintea%2C+Lilian&rft.au=Plumptre%2C+Andrew+J.&rft.au=Rundus%2C+Aaron&rft.au=Serckx%2C+Adeline&rft.au=Stewart%2C+Fiona+A.&rft.au=Sunderland-Groves%2C+Jacqueline&rft.au=Tagg%2C+Nikki&rft.au=Todd%2C+Angelique&rft.au=Vosper%2C+Ashley&rft.au=Wenceslau%2C+Jos%C3%A9+F.C.&rft.au=Wessling%2C+Erin+G.&rft.au=Willie%2C+Jacob&rft.au=K%C3%BChl%2C+Hjalmar+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fddi.13358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-86" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-86" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWhiteGregovichLevi2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">White, Kevin S.; Gregovich, David P.; Levi, Taal (October 3, 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13919" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Projecting the future of an alpine ungulate under climate change scenarios"</a>. <i>Global Change Biology</i>. <b>24</b> (3): 1136–1149. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgcb.13919" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/gcb.13919</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28973826" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">28973826</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3374336" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3374336</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Change+Biology&rft.atitle=Projecting+the+future+of+an+alpine+ungulate+under+climate+change+scenarios&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1136-1149&rft.date=2017-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3374336%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28973826&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.13919&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Kevin+S.&rft.au=Gregovich%2C+David+P.&rft.au=Levi%2C+Taal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.13919&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-87" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-87" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFNowak2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Nowak R (31 March 2009). <a class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16875" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Rumours of possum's death were greatly exaggerated"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Rumours+of+possum%27s+death+were+greatly+exaggerated&rft.date=2009-03-31&rft.aulast=Nowak&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn16875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-atlantic-88" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-atlantic_88-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFEd_Yong2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Ed Yong (Jan 14, 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2020/01/australias-fires-have-been-devastating-for-wildlife/604837/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Bleak Future of Australian Wildlife"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">Feb 8,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Bleak+Future+of+Australian+Wildlife&rft.date=2020-01-14&rft.au=Ed+Yong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fscience%2Farchive%2F2020%2F01%2Faustralias-fires-have-been-devastating-for-wildlife%2F604837%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-89" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-89" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFDanush_ParvanehChristophe_HaubursinMelissa_Hirsch2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Danush Parvaneh; Christophe Haubursin; Melissa Hirsch (Jan 14, 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/videos/2020/1/14/21064675/australia-fire-koalas-extinct" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Are Australia's koalas going extinct? We asked an ecologist"</a>. <i>Vox</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">Feb 8,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Are+Australia%27s+koalas+going+extinct%3F+We+asked+an+ecologist.&rft.date=2020-01-14&rft.au=Danush+Parvaneh&rft.au=Christophe+Haubursin&rft.au=Melissa+Hirsch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fvideos%2F2020%2F1%2F14%2F21064675%2Faustralia-fire-koalas-extinct&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-90" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-90" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFNatasha_Daly2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Natasha Daly (Nov 25, 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/koalas-near-extinction-myth-australia-fires/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"No, koalas aren't 'functionally extinct'—yet"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">Feb 8,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=No%2C+koalas+aren%27t+%27functionally+extinct%27%E2%80%94yet&rft.date=2019-11-25&rft.au=Natasha+Daly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fanimals%2F2019%2F11%2Fkoalas-near-extinction-myth-australia-fires%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Bestion2015-91" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Bestion2015_91-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Bestion2015_91-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBestionTeyssierRichardClobert2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bestion, Elvire; Teyssier, Aimeric; Richard, Murielle; Clobert, Jean; Cote, Julien (October 26, 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4621050" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Live Fast, Die Young: Experimental Evidence of Population Extinction Risk due to Climate Change"</a>. <i>PLOS Biology</i>. <b>13</b> (10): e1002281. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1002281" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1371/journal.pbio.1002281</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4621050" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">4621050</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26501958" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">26501958</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=Live+Fast%2C+Die+Young%3A+Experimental+Evidence+of+Population+Extinction+Risk+due+to+Climate+Change&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=e1002281&rft.date=2015-10-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4621050%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26501958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1002281&rft.aulast=Bestion&rft.aufirst=Elvire&rft.au=Teyssier%2C+Aimeric&rft.au=Richard%2C+Murielle&rft.au=Clobert%2C+Jean&rft.au=Cote%2C+Julien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4621050&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-92" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-92" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSinervoMéndez-de-la-CruzMilesHeulin2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sinervo, Barry; Méndez-de-la-Cruz, Fausto; Miles, Donald B.; Heulin, Benoit; Bastiaans, Elizabeth; Villagrán-Santa Cruz, Maricela; Lara-Resendiz, Rafael; Martínez-Méndez, Norberto; Calderón-Espinosa, Martha Lucía; Meza-Lázaro, Rubi Nelsi; Gadsden, Héctor; Avila, Luciano Javier; Morando, Mariana; De la Riva, Ignacio J.; Sepulveda, Pedro Victoriano; Duarte Rocha, Carlos Frederico; Ibargüengoytía, Nora; Puntriano, César Aguilar; Massot, Manuel; Lepetz, Virginie; Oksanen, Tuula A.; Chapple, David G.; Bauer, Aaron M.; Branch, William R.; Clobert, Jean; Sites, Jack W. (14 May 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1184695" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Erosion of lizard diversity by climate change and altered thermal niches"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>328</b> (5980): 894–899. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Sci...328..894S" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2010Sci...328..894S</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1184695" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1126/science.1184695</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20466932" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20466932</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9578762" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">9578762</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Erosion+of+lizard+diversity+by+climate+change+and+altered+thermal+niches&rft.volume=328&rft.issue=5980&rft.pages=894-899&rft.date=2010-05-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1184695&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9578762%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20466932&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Sci...328..894S&rft.aulast=Sinervo&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft.au=M%C3%A9ndez-de-la-Cruz%2C+Fausto&rft.au=Miles%2C+Donald+B.&rft.au=Heulin%2C+Benoit&rft.au=Bastiaans%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Villagr%C3%A1n-Santa+Cruz%2C+Maricela&rft.au=Lara-Resendiz%2C+Rafael&rft.au=Mart%C3%ADnez-M%C3%A9ndez%2C+Norberto&rft.au=Calder%C3%B3n-Espinosa%2C+Martha+Luc%C3%ADa&rft.au=Meza-L%C3%A1zaro%2C+Rubi+Nelsi&rft.au=Gadsden%2C+H%C3%A9ctor&rft.au=Avila%2C+Luciano+Javier&rft.au=Morando%2C+Mariana&rft.au=De+la+Riva%2C+Ignacio+J.&rft.au=Sepulveda%2C+Pedro+Victoriano&rft.au=Duarte+Rocha%2C+Carlos+Frederico&rft.au=Ibarg%C3%BCengoyt%C3%ADa%2C+Nora&rft.au=Puntriano%2C+C%C3%A9sar+Aguilar&rft.au=Massot%2C+Manuel&rft.au=Lepetz%2C+Virginie&rft.au=Oksanen%2C+Tuula+A.&rft.au=Chapple%2C+David+G.&rft.au=Bauer%2C+Aaron+M.&rft.au=Branch%2C+William+R.&rft.au=Clobert%2C+Jean&rft.au=Sites%2C+Jack+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1184695&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-93" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-93" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFHueyDeutschTewksburyVitt2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Huey, Raymond B.; Deutsch, Curtis A.; Tewksbury, Joshua J.; Vitt, Laurie J.; Hertz, Paul E.; Álvarez Pérez, Héctor J.; Garland, Theodore (June 7, 2009). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2677251" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Why tropical forest lizards are vulnerable to climate warming"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>276</b> (1664): 1939–1948. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2008.1957" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1098/rspb.2008.1957</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2677251" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2677251</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19324762" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">19324762</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Why+tropical+forest+lizards+are+vulnerable+to+climate+warming&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1664&rft.pages=1939-1948&rft.date=2009-06-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2677251%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19324762&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2008.1957&rft.aulast=Huey&rft.aufirst=Raymond+B.&rft.au=Deutsch%2C+Curtis+A.&rft.au=Tewksbury%2C+Joshua+J.&rft.au=Vitt%2C+Laurie+J.&rft.au=Hertz%2C+Paul+E.&rft.au=%C3%81lvarez+P%C3%A9rez%2C+H%C3%A9ctor+J.&rft.au=Garland%2C+Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2677251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-94" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-94" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWardTullochRadfordWilliams2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Ward, Michelle; Tulloch, Ayesha I. T.; Radford, James Q.; Williams, Brooke A.; Reside, April E.; Macdonald, Stewart L.; Mayfield, Helen J.; Maron, Martine; Possingham, Hugh P.; Vine, Samantha J.; O’Connor, James L. (October 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1251-1" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Impact of 2019–2020 mega-fires on Australian fauna habitat"</a>. <i>Nature Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>4</b> (10): 1321–1326. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41559-020-1251-1" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41559-020-1251-1</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2397-334X" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2397-334X</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32690905" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">32690905</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; 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counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-95" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLaloëEstebanBerkelHays2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Laloë JO, Esteban N, Berkel J, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graeme_Hays" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Graeme Hays">Hays GC</a> (2016). <a class="external text" href="https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa23842" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Sand temperatures for nesting sea turtles in the Caribbean: Implications for hatchling sex ratios in the face of climate change"</a>. <i>Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology</i>. <b>474</b>: 92–99. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jembe.2015.09.015" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.jembe.2015.09.015</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Marine+Biology+and+Ecology&rft.atitle=Sand+temperatures+for+nesting+sea+turtles+in+the+Caribbean%3A+Implications+for+hatchling+sex+ratios+in+the+face+of+climate+change&rft.volume=474&rft.pages=92-99&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jembe.2015.09.015&rft.aulast=Lalo%C3%AB&rft.aufirst=JO&rft.au=Esteban%2C+N&rft.au=Berkel%2C+J&rft.au=Hays%2C+GC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcronfa.swan.ac.uk%2FRecord%2Fcronfa23842&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-96" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-96" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMammolaGoodacreIsaia2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Mammola, Stefano; Goodacre, Sara L.; Isaia, Marco (January 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/854395/1/indexcodes.txt" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change may drive cave spiders to extinction"</a>. <i>Ecography</i>. <b>41</b> (1): 233–243. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fecog.02902" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/ecog.02902</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2318%2F1623725" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2318/1623725</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55362100" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">55362100</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecography&rft.atitle=Climate+change+may+drive+cave+spiders+to+extinction&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=233-243&rft.date=2018-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2318%2F1623725&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55362100%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fecog.02902&rft.aulast=Mammola&rft.aufirst=Stefano&rft.au=Goodacre%2C+Sara+L.&rft.au=Isaia%2C+Marco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnottingham-repository.worktribe.com%2F854395%2F1%2Findexcodes.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-97" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-97" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDixonForsterHeronStoner2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dixon, Adele M.; Forster, Piers M.; Heron, Scott F.; Stoner, Anne M. K.; Beger, Maria (1 February 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000004" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Future loss of local-scale thermal refugia in coral reef ecosystems"</a>. <i>PLOS Climate</i>. <b>1</b> (2): e0000004. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pclm.0000004" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1371/journal.pclm.0000004</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246512448" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">246512448</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Climate&rft.atitle=Future+loss+of+local-scale+thermal+refugia+in+coral+reef+ecosystems&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e0000004&rft.date=2022-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pclm.0000004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246512448%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Adele+M.&rft.au=Forster%2C+Piers+M.&rft.au=Heron%2C+Scott+F.&rft.au=Stoner%2C+Anne+M.+K.&rft.au=Beger%2C+Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.plos.org%2Fclimate%2Farticle%3Fid%3D10.1371%2Fjournal.pclm.0000004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-98" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-98" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFDunne2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dunne, Daisy (1 February 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/last-refuges-for-coral-reefs-to-disappear-above-1-5c-of-global-warming-study-finds/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Last refuges for coral reefs to disappear above 1.5C of global warming, study finds"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_Brief" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon Brief">Carbon Brief</a></i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Carbon+Brief&rft.atitle=Last+refuges+for+coral+reefs+to+disappear+above+1.5C+of+global+warming%2C+study+finds&rft.date=2022-02-01&rft.aulast=Dunne&rft.aufirst=Daisy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.carbonbrief.org%2Flast-refuges-for-coral-reefs-to-disappear-above-1-5c-of-global-warming-study-finds%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Dietzel2021-99" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Dietzel2021_99-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Dietzel2021_99-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDietzelBodeConnollyHughes2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dietzel, Andreas; Bode, Michael; Connolly, Sean R.; Hughes, Terry P. (1 March 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01393-4" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The population sizes and global extinction risk of reef-building coral species at biogeographic scales"</a>. <i>Nature Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>5</b> (5): 663–669. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41559-021-01393-4" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41559-021-01393-4</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33649542" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33649542</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256726373" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">256726373</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+population+sizes+and+global+extinction+risk+of+reef-building+coral+species+at+biogeographic+scales&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=663-669&rft.date=2021-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256726373%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33649542&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41559-021-01393-4&rft.aulast=Dietzel&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft.au=Bode%2C+Michael&rft.au=Connolly%2C+Sean+R.&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Terry+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41559-021-01393-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-100" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-100" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2021-03-trillion-corals-world-first-coral-prompts.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Half a trillion corals: World-first coral count prompts rethink of extinction risks"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phys.org" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Phys.org">Phys.org</a></i>. 1 March 2021.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phys.org&rft.atitle=Half+a+trillion+corals%3A+World-first+coral+count+prompts+rethink+of+extinction+risks&rft.date=2021-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2021-03-trillion-corals-world-first-coral-prompts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-101" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-101" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMuirOburaHoeksemaSheppard2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Muir, Paul R.; Obura, David O.; Hoeksema, Bert W.; Sheppard, Charles; Pichon, Michel; Richards, Zoe T. (14 February 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01659-5" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Conclusions of low extinction risk for most species of reef-building corals are premature"</a>. <i>Nature Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>6</b> (4): 357–358. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41559-022-01659-5" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41559-022-01659-5</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35165390" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">35165390</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246827109" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">246827109</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Conclusions+of+low+extinction+risk+for+most+species+of+reef-building+corals+are+premature&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=357-358&rft.date=2022-02-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246827109%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35165390&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41559-022-01659-5&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft.au=Obura%2C+David+O.&rft.au=Hoeksema%2C+Bert+W.&rft.au=Sheppard%2C+Charles&rft.au=Pichon%2C+Michel&rft.au=Richards%2C+Zoe+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41559-022-01659-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-102" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-102" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDietzelBodeConnollyHughes2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dietzel, Andreas; Bode, Michael; Connolly, Sean R.; Hughes, Terry P. (14 February 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01660-y" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Reply to: Conclusions of low extinction risk for most species of reef-building corals are premature"</a>. <i>Nature Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>6</b> (4): 359–360. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41559-022-01660-y" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41559-022-01660-y</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35165391" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">35165391</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246826874" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">246826874</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Reply+to%3A+Conclusions+of+low+extinction+risk+for+most+species+of+reef-building+corals+are+premature&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=359-360&rft.date=2022-02-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246826874%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35165391&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41559-022-01660-y&rft.aulast=Dietzel&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft.au=Bode%2C+Michael&rft.au=Connolly%2C+Sean+R.&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Terry+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41559-022-01660-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-McLaughlin-103" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-McLaughlin_103-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMcLaughlinHellmannBoggsEhrlich2002" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">McLaughlin JF, Hellmann JJ, Boggs CL, Ehrlich PR (April 2002). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC122903" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change hastens population extinctions"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>99</b> (9): 6070–4. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PNAS...99.6070M" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2002PNAS...99.6070M</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.052131199" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">11972020</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Climate+change+hastens+population+extinctions&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=6070-4&rft.date=2002-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC122903%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11972020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.052131199&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PNAS...99.6070M&rft.aulast=McLaughlin&rft.aufirst=JF&rft.au=Hellmann%2C+JJ&rft.au=Boggs%2C+CL&rft.au=Ehrlich%2C+PR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC122903&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-104" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-104" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSoroyeNewboldKerr2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Soroye, Peter; Newbold, Tim; Kerr, Jeremy (7 Feb 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aax8591" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change contributes to widespread declines among bumble bees across continents"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>367</b> (6478): 685–688. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; 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counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-105" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/02/06/bumblebees-decline-due-climate-change/4679240002/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Bumblebees are disappearing at rates 'consistent with mass extinction'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Today" style="background: none; 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overflow-wrap: break-word;">Engelhardt, Eva Katharina; Biber, Matthias F.; Dolek, Matthias; Fartmann, Thomas; Hochkirch, Axel; Leidinger, Jan; Löffler, Franz; Pinkert, Stefan; Poniatowski, Dominik; Voith, Johannes; Winterholler, Michael; Zeuss, Dirk; Bowler, Diana E.; Hof, Christian (10 May 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.16200" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Consistent signals of a warming climate in occupancy changes of three insect taxa over 40 years in central Europe"</a>. <i>Global Change Biology</i>. <b>28</b> (13): 3998–4012. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgcb.16200" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/gcb.16200</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35535680" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">35535680</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248668146" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">248668146</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Change+Biology&rft.atitle=Consistent+signals+of+a+warming+climate+in+occupancy+changes+of+three+insect+taxa+over+40+years+in+central+Europe&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=3998-4012&rft.date=2022-05-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248668146%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35535680&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.16200&rft.aulast=Engelhardt&rft.aufirst=Eva+Katharina&rft.au=Biber%2C+Matthias+F.&rft.au=Dolek%2C+Matthias&rft.au=Fartmann%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Hochkirch%2C+Axel&rft.au=Leidinger%2C+Jan&rft.au=L%C3%B6ffler%2C+Franz&rft.au=Pinkert%2C+Stefan&rft.au=Poniatowski%2C+Dominik&rft.au=Voith%2C+Johannes&rft.au=Winterholler%2C+Michael&rft.au=Zeuss%2C+Dirk&rft.au=Bowler%2C+Diana+E.&rft.au=Hof%2C+Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.16200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-107" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-107" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFChowdbury2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Chowdbury, Shawan (11 November 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2022.159989" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Threatened species could be more vulnerable to climate change in tropical countries"</a>. <i>Science of the Total Environment</i>. <b>858</b>: 159989. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2022.159989" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159989</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36347284" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">36347284</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+of+the+Total+Environment&rft.atitle=Threatened+species+could+be+more+vulnerable+to+climate+change+in+tropical+countries&rft.volume=858&rft.pages=159989&rft.date=2022-11-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2022.159989&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36347284&rft.aulast=Chowdbury&rft.aufirst=Shawan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.scitotenv.2022.159989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-108" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-108" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLughadhaBachmanLeãoForest2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lughadha, Eimear Nic; Bachman, Steven P.; Leão, Tarciso C. C.; Forest, Félix; Halley, John M.; Moat, Justin; Acedo, Carmen; Bacon, Karen L.; Brewer, Ryan F. A.; Gâteblé, Gildas; Gonçalves, Susana C.; Govaerts, Rafaël; Hollingsworth, Peter M.; Krisai-Greilhuber, Irmgard; de Lirio, Elton J.; Moore, Paloma G. P.; Negrão, Raquel; Onana, Jean Michel; Rajaovelona, Landy R.; Razanajatovo, Henintsoa; Reich, Peter B.; Richards, Sophie L.; Rivers, Malin C.; Cooper, Amanda; Iganci, João; Lewis, Gwilym P.; Smidt, Eric C.; Antonelli, Alexandre; Mueller, Gregory M.; Walker, Barnaby E. (29 September 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10146" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Extinction risk and threats to plants and fungi"</a>. <i>Plants People Planet</i>. <b>2</b> (5): 389–408. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fppp3.10146" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1002/ppp3.10146</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225274409" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">225274409</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plants+People+Planet&rft.atitle=Extinction+risk+and+threats+to+plants+and+fungi&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=389-408&rft.date=2020-09-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fppp3.10146&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225274409%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lughadha&rft.aufirst=Eimear+Nic&rft.au=Bachman%2C+Steven+P.&rft.au=Le%C3%A3o%2C+Tarciso+C.+C.&rft.au=Forest%2C+F%C3%A9lix&rft.au=Halley%2C+John+M.&rft.au=Moat%2C+Justin&rft.au=Acedo%2C+Carmen&rft.au=Bacon%2C+Karen+L.&rft.au=Brewer%2C+Ryan+F.+A.&rft.au=G%C3%A2tebl%C3%A9%2C+Gildas&rft.au=Gon%C3%A7alves%2C+Susana+C.&rft.au=Govaerts%2C+Rafa%C3%ABl&rft.au=Hollingsworth%2C+Peter+M.&rft.au=Krisai-Greilhuber%2C+Irmgard&rft.au=de+Lirio%2C+Elton+J.&rft.au=Moore%2C+Paloma+G.+P.&rft.au=Negr%C3%A3o%2C+Raquel&rft.au=Onana%2C+Jean+Michel&rft.au=Rajaovelona%2C+Landy+R.&rft.au=Razanajatovo%2C+Henintsoa&rft.au=Reich%2C+Peter+B.&rft.au=Richards%2C+Sophie+L.&rft.au=Rivers%2C+Malin+C.&rft.au=Cooper%2C+Amanda&rft.au=Iganci%2C+Jo%C3%A3o&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Gwilym+P.&rft.au=Smidt%2C+Eric+C.&rft.au=Antonelli%2C+Alexandre&rft.au=Mueller%2C+Gregory+M.&rft.au=Walker%2C+Barnaby+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Fppp3.10146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-109" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-109" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFEnglerRandinThuilerDullinger2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Engler, Robin; Randin, Cristophe F.; Thuiler, Wilfried; Dullinger, Stefan; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; Araujo, Miguel B.; Pearman, Peter B.; Le Lay, Gwenaelle; Piedallu, Christian; Albert, Cecile H.; Choler, Philippe; Coldea, Gheorghe; De Lamo, Xavier; Dirnböck, Thomas; Gegout, Jean-Claude; Gomez-Garcia, Daniel; Grythes, John-Arvid; Heegaard, Einar; Hoistad, Fride; Nogues-Bravo, David; Normand, Signe; Puscas, Mihai; Sebastia, Maria-Theresa; Stanisci, Angela; Theurillat, Jean-Paul; Trivedi, Mandar R.; Vittoz, Pascal; Guisan, Antoine (24 December 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02393.x" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"21st century climate change threatens mountain flora unequally across Europe"</a>. <i>Global Change Biology</i>. <b>17</b> (7): 2330–2341. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2486.2010.02393.x" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02393.x</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53579186" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">53579186</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Change+Biology&rft.atitle=21st+century+climate+change+threatens+mountain+flora+unequally+across+Europe&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2330-2341&rft.date=2010-12-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2486.2010.02393.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53579186%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Engler&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft.au=Randin%2C+Cristophe+F.&rft.au=Thuiler%2C+Wilfried&rft.au=Dullinger%2C+Stefan&rft.au=Zimmermann%2C+Niklaus+E.&rft.au=Araujo%2C+Miguel+B.&rft.au=Pearman%2C+Peter+B.&rft.au=Le+Lay%2C+Gwenaelle&rft.au=Piedallu%2C+Christian&rft.au=Albert%2C+Cecile+H.&rft.au=Choler%2C+Philippe&rft.au=Coldea%2C+Gheorghe&rft.au=De+Lamo%2C+Xavier&rft.au=Dirnb%C3%B6ck%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Gegout%2C+Jean-Claude&rft.au=Gomez-Garcia%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Grythes%2C+John-Arvid&rft.au=Heegaard%2C+Einar&rft.au=Hoistad%2C+Fride&rft.au=Nogues-Bravo%2C+David&rft.au=Normand%2C+Signe&rft.au=Puscas%2C+Mihai&rft.au=Sebastia%2C+Maria-Theresa&rft.au=Stanisci%2C+Angela&rft.au=Theurillat%2C+Jean-Paul&rft.au=Trivedi%2C+Mandar+R.&rft.au=Vittoz%2C+Pascal&rft.au=Guisan%2C+Antoine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2486.2010.02393.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-110" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-110" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDullingerGattringerThuilerMoser2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dullinger, Stefan; Gattringer, Andreas; Thuiler, Wilfried; Moser, Dietmar; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; Guisan, Antoine; Willner, Wolfgang; Plutzar, Cristoph; Leitner, Michael; Mang, Thomas; Caccianiga, Marco; Dirnböck, Thomas; Ertl, Siegrun; Fischer, Anton; Lenoir, Jonathan; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Psomas, Achilleas; Schmatz, Dirk R.; Silc, Urban; Vittoz, Pascal; Hülber, Karl (6 May 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1514" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Extinction debt of high-mountain plants under twenty-first-century climate change"</a>. <i>Nature Climate Change</i>. <b>2</b> (8): 619–622. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012NatCC...2..619D" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2012NatCC...2..619D</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnclimate1514" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/nclimate1514</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Extinction+debt+of+high-mountain+plants+under+twenty-first-century+climate+change&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=619-622&rft.date=2012-05-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnclimate1514&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012NatCC...2..619D&rft.aulast=Dullinger&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Gattringer%2C+Andreas&rft.au=Thuiler%2C+Wilfried&rft.au=Moser%2C+Dietmar&rft.au=Zimmermann%2C+Niklaus+E.&rft.au=Guisan%2C+Antoine&rft.au=Willner%2C+Wolfgang&rft.au=Plutzar%2C+Cristoph&rft.au=Leitner%2C+Michael&rft.au=Mang%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Caccianiga%2C+Marco&rft.au=Dirnb%C3%B6ck%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Ertl%2C+Siegrun&rft.au=Fischer%2C+Anton&rft.au=Lenoir%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Svenning%2C+Jens-Christian&rft.au=Psomas%2C+Achilleas&rft.au=Schmatz%2C+Dirk+R.&rft.au=Silc%2C+Urban&rft.au=Vittoz%2C+Pascal&rft.au=H%C3%BClber%2C+Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnclimate1514&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Block2022-111" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Block2022_111-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Block2022_111-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBlockMaechlerLevineAlexander2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Block, Sebastián; Maechler, Marc-Jacques; Levine, Jacob I.; Alexander, Jake M.; Pellissier, Loïc; Levine, Jonathan M. (26 August 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9804264" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Ecological lags govern the pace and outcome of plant community responses to 21st-century climate change"</a>. <i>Ecology Letters</i>. <b>25</b> (10): 2156–2166. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fele.14087" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/ele.14087</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9804264" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">9804264</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36028464" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">36028464</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=Ecological+lags+govern+the+pace+and+outcome+of+plant+community+responses+to+21st-century+climate+change&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=2156-2166&rft.date=2022-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9804264%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36028464&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fele.14087&rft.aulast=Block&rft.aufirst=Sebasti%C3%A1n&rft.au=Maechler%2C+Marc-Jacques&rft.au=Levine%2C+Jacob+I.&rft.au=Alexander%2C+Jake+M.&rft.au=Pellissier%2C+Lo%C3%AFc&rft.au=Levine%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9804264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-112" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-112" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFNomotoAlexander2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Nomoto, Hanna A.; Alexander, Jake M. (29 March 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7612402" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Drivers of local extinction risk in alpine plants under warming climate"</a>. <i>Ecology Letters</i>. <b>24</b>(6): 1157–1166. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fele.13727" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/ele.13727</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7612402" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7612402</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33780124" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33780124</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=Drivers+of+local+extinction+risk+in+alpine+plants+under+warming+climate&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1157-1166&rft.date=2021-03-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7612402%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33780124&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fele.13727&rft.aulast=Nomoto&rft.aufirst=Hanna+A.&rft.au=Alexander%2C+Jake+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7612402&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-113" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-113" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMolnárBitzHollandKay2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Molnár, Péter K.; Bitz, Cecilia M.; Holland, Marika M.; Kay, Jennifer E.; Penk, Stephanie R.; Amstrup, Steven C. (24 June 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-019-0500-2" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Amazonian tree species threatened by deforestation and climate change"</a>. <i>Nature Climate Change</i>. <b>9</b> (7): 547–553. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatCC...9..547G" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2019NatCC...9..547G</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41558-019-0500-2" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41558-019-0500-2</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:196648161" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">196648161</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Amazonian+tree+species+threatened+by+deforestation+and+climate+change&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=547-553&rft.date=2019-06-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A196648161%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41558-019-0500-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatCC...9..547G&rft.aulast=Moln%C3%A1r&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A9ter+K.&rft.au=Bitz%2C+Cecilia+M.&rft.au=Holland%2C+Marika+M.&rft.au=Kay%2C+Jennifer+E.&rft.au=Penk%2C+Stephanie+R.&rft.au=Amstrup%2C+Steven+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41558-019-0500-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-114" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-114" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFChefaouiDuarteSerrão2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Chefaoui, Rosa M.; Duarte, Carlos M.; Serrão, Ester A. (July 14, 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.14401" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Dramatic loss of seagrass habitat under projected climate change in the Mediterranean Sea"</a>. <i>Global Change Biology</i>. <b>24</b> (10): 4919–4928. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018GCBio..24.4919C" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2018GCBio..24.4919C</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgcb.14401" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/gcb.14401</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30006980" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">30006980</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51625384" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">51625384</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Change+Biology&rft.atitle=Dramatic+loss+of+seagrass+habitat+under+projected+climate+change+in+the+Mediterranean+Sea&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=4919-4928&rft.date=2018-07-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.14401&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51625384%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30006980&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018GCBio..24.4919C&rft.aulast=Chefaoui&rft.aufirst=Rosa+M.&rft.au=Duarte%2C+Carlos+M.&rft.au=Serr%C3%A3o%2C+Ester+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fgcb.14401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-115" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-115" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFRoeRiceColtmanCooke2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Roe, Amanda D.; Rice, Adrianne V.; Coltman, David W.; Cooke, Janice E. K.; Sperling, Felix A. H. (2011). "Comparative phylogeography, genetic differentiation and contrasting reproductive modes in three fungal symbionts of a multipartite bark beetle symbiosis". <i>Molecular Ecology</i>. <b>20</b> (3): 584–600. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-294X.2010.04953.x" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04953.x</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21166729" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">21166729</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24882291" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">24882291</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Ecology&rft.atitle=Comparative+phylogeography%2C+genetic+differentiation+and+contrasting+reproductive+modes+in+three+fungal+symbionts+of+a+multipartite+bark+beetle+symbiosis&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=584-600&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24882291%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21166729&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-294X.2010.04953.x&rft.aulast=Roe&rft.aufirst=Amanda+D.&rft.au=Rice%2C+Adrianne+V.&rft.au=Coltman%2C+David+W.&rft.au=Cooke%2C+Janice+E.+K.&rft.au=Sperling%2C+Felix+A.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-116" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-116" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLambinMeyfroidt2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lambin, Eric F.; Meyfroidt, Patrick (1 March 2011). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048112" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>108</b> (9): 3465–3472. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..108.3465L" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2011PNAS..108.3465L</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1100480108" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.1100480108</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048112" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3048112</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21321211" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">21321211</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Global+land+use+change%2C+economic+globalization%2C+and+the+looming+land+scarcity&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=3465-3472&rft.date=2011-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3048112%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21321211&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1100480108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PNAS..108.3465L&rft.aulast=Lambin&rft.aufirst=Eric+F.&rft.au=Meyfroidt%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3048112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-117" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-117" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSintayehu2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sintayehu, Dejene W. 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">3445732</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Ecology&rft.atitle=Priority+effects+are+affected+by+precipitation+variability+and+are+stronger+in+exotic+than+native+grassland+species&rft.volume=219&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=429-439&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11258-018-0806-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3445732%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Goodale&rft.aufirst=Kaitlin+M.&rft.au=Wilsey%2C+Brian+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-119" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-119" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFBriggs2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Briggs, Helen (11 June 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-48584515" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Plant extinction 'bad news for all species'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Plant+extinction+%27bad+news+for+all+species%27&rft.date=2019-06-11&rft.aulast=Briggs&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-48584515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-120" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-120" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.heatisonline.org/contentserver/objecthandlers/index.cfm?id=5014&method=full" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Grass flourishes in warmer Antarctic</a> originally from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Times">The Times</a>, December 2004</span></li><li id="cite_note-Grimm2013-121" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Grimm2013_121-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFGrimmChapinBierwagenGonzalez2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Grimm, Nancy B; Chapin, F Stuart; Bierwagen, Britta; Gonzalez, Patrick; Groffman, Peter M; Luo, Yiqi; Melton, Forrest; Nadelhoffer, Knute; Pairis, Amber; Raymond, Peter A; Schimel, Josh; Williamson, Craig E (November 2013). 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">16556109</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+the+Environment&rft.atitle=The+impacts+of+climate+change+on+ecosystem+structure+and+function&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=474-482&rft.date=2013-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F120282&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16556109%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Grimm&rft.aufirst=Nancy+B&rft.au=Chapin%2C+F+Stuart&rft.au=Bierwagen%2C+Britta&rft.au=Gonzalez%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Groffman%2C+Peter+M&rft.au=Luo%2C+Yiqi&rft.au=Melton%2C+Forrest&rft.au=Nadelhoffer%2C+Knute&rft.au=Pairis%2C+Amber&rft.au=Raymond%2C+Peter+A&rft.au=Schimel%2C+Josh&rft.au=Williamson%2C+Craig+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-122" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-122" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMorganFinnøenJensenPélabon2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Morgan, Rachael; Finnøen, Mette H.; Jensen, Henrik; Pélabon, Christophe; Jutfelt, Fredrik (2020-12-29). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7776906" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Low potential for evolutionary rescue from climate change in a tropical fish"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>117</b> (52): 33365–33372. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PNAS..11733365M" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2020PNAS..11733365M</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2011419117" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.2011419117</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0027-8424</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7776906" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7776906</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33318195" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33318195</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Low+potential+for+evolutionary+rescue+from+climate+change+in+a+tropical+fish&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=52&rft.pages=33365-33372&rft.date=2020-12-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7776906%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020PNAS..11733365M&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33318195&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2011419117&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Rachael&rft.au=Finn%C3%B8en%2C+Mette+H.&rft.au=Jensen%2C+Henrik&rft.au=P%C3%A9labon%2C+Christophe&rft.au=Jutfelt%2C+Fredrik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7776906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-123" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-123" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFTime_Hirsch2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Time Hirsch (2005-10-05). <a class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4313726.stm" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Animals 'hit by global warming'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="BBC">BBC</a> News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2007-12-29</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Animals+%27hit+by+global+warming%27&rft.date=2005-10-05&rft.au=Time+Hirsch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F4313726.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-124" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-124" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFForisterMcCallSandersFordyce2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Forister, Matthew L.; McCall, Andrew C.; Sanders, Nathan J.; Fordyce, James A.; Thorne, James H.; O’Brien, Joshua; Waetjen, David P.; Shapiro, Arthur M. (2010-02-02). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2836664" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Compounded effects of climate change and habitat alteration shift patterns of butterfly diversity"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>107</b> (5): 2088–2092. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107.2088F" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2010PNAS..107.2088F</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0909686107" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1073/pnas.0909686107</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0027-8424</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2836664" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2836664</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20133854" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20133854</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Compounded+effects+of+climate+change+and+habitat+alteration+shift+patterns+of+butterfly+diversity&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=2088-2092&rft.date=2010-02-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2836664%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..107.2088F&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20133854&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0909686107&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Forister&rft.aufirst=Matthew+L.&rft.au=McCall%2C+Andrew+C.&rft.au=Sanders%2C+Nathan+J.&rft.au=Fordyce%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Thorne%2C+James+H.&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Brien%2C+Joshua&rft.au=Waetjen%2C+David+P.&rft.au=Shapiro%2C+Arthur+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2836664&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-125" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-125" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">need citation</span></li><li id="cite_note-126" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-126" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWaltherPostConveyMenzel2002" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Walther, Gian-Reto; Post, Eric; Convey, Peter; Menzel, Annette; Parmesan, Camille; Beebee, Trevor J. C.; Fromentin, Jean-Marc; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove; Bairlein, Franz (March 2002). "Ecological responses to recent climate change". <i>Nature</i>. <b>416</b> (6879): 389–395. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.416..389W" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2002Natur.416..389W</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F416389a" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/416389a</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919621" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">11919621</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1176350" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1176350</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Ecological+responses+to+recent+climate+change&rft.volume=416&rft.issue=6879&rft.pages=389-395&rft.date=2002-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F416389a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1176350%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11919621&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Natur.416..389W&rft.aulast=Walther&rft.aufirst=Gian-Reto&rft.au=Post%2C+Eric&rft.au=Convey%2C+Peter&rft.au=Menzel%2C+Annette&rft.au=Parmesan%2C+Camille&rft.au=Beebee%2C+Trevor+J.+C.&rft.au=Fromentin%2C+Jean-Marc&rft.au=Hoegh-Guldberg%2C+Ove&rft.au=Bairlein%2C+Franz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Climate_change_and_birds_Kiat2019-127" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Climate_change_and_birds_Kiat2019_127-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFKiatVortmanSapir2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kiat, Y.; Vortman, Y.; Sapir, N. (10 June 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-019-10452-1" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Feather moult and bird appearance are correlated with global warming over the last 200 years"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>10</b>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-019-10452-1" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41467-019-10452-1</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Feather+moult+and+bird+appearance+are+correlated+with+global+warming+over+the+last+200+years&rft.volume=10&rft.date=2019-06-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-019-10452-1&rft.aulast=Kiat&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft.au=Vortman%2C+Y.&rft.au=Sapir%2C+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41467-019-10452-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Climate_change_and_birds_study1-128" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-Climate_change_and_birds_study1_128-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/08/220803123125.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Change in bird coloration due to climate change"</a>. <i>ScienceDaily</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2022-08-04</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceDaily&rft.atitle=Change+in+bird+coloration+due+to+climate+change&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2022%2F08%2F220803123125.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-129" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-129" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLópez-IdiáquezTeplitskyGrégoireFargevieille2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">López-Idiáquez, David; Teplitsky, Céline; Grégoire, Arnaud; Fargevieille, Amélie; del Rey, María; de Franceschi, Christophe; Charmantier, Anne; Doutrelant, Claire (1 July 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/719655" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Long-Term Decrease in Coloration: A Consequence of Climate Change?"</a>. <i>The American Naturalist</i>. <b>200</b> (1): 32–47. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2211.13673" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2211.13673</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F719655" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1086/719655</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0147" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0003-0147</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35737990" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">35737990</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247102554" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">247102554</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Long-Term+Decrease+in+Coloration%3A+A+Consequence+of+Climate+Change%3F&rft.volume=200&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-47&rft.date=2022-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247102554%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F719655&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2211.13673&rft.issn=0003-0147&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35737990&rft.aulast=L%C3%B3pez-Idi%C3%A1quez&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Teplitsky%2C+C%C3%A9line&rft.au=Gr%C3%A9goire%2C+Arnaud&rft.au=Fargevieille%2C+Am%C3%A9lie&rft.au=del+Rey%2C+Mar%C3%ADa&rft.au=de+Franceschi%2C+Christophe&rft.au=Charmantier%2C+Anne&rft.au=Doutrelant%2C+Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F719655&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-130" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-130" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-50306365" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate change alters red deer gene pool"</a>. <i>BBC News online</i>. 5 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">10 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News+online&rft.atitle=Climate+change+alters+red+deer+gene+pool&rft.date=2019-11-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-scotland-highlands-islands-50306365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-131" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-131" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFZimbabwe2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Zimbabwe, UNDP (2022-03-03). <a class="external text" href="https://medium.com/undpzimbabwe/women-and-wildlife-in-the-zambezi-valley-d6f9e042d7bc" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Women and Wildlife in the Zambezi Valley"</a>. <i>UNDP Zimbabwe</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2023-03-25</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNDP+Zimbabwe&rft.atitle=Women+and+Wildlife+in+the+Zambezi+Valley&rft.date=2022-03-03&rft.aulast=Zimbabwe&rft.aufirst=UNDP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2Fundpzimbabwe%2Fwomen-and-wildlife-in-the-zambezi-valley-d6f9e042d7bc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-sector-132" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-sector_132-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAubinC.M._GarbeS._ColomboC.R._Drever2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Aubin, I.; C.M. Garbe; S. Colombo; C.R. Drever; D.W. McKenney; C. Messier; J. Pedlar; M.A. Saner; L. Vernier; A.M. Wellstead; R. Winder; E. Witten; E. Ste-Marie (2011). "Why we disagree about assisted migration: Ethical implications of a key debate regarding the future of Canada's forests". <i>Forestry Chronicle</i>. <b>87</b> (6): 755–765. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5558%2Ftfc2011-092" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.5558/tfc2011-092</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forestry+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Why+we+disagree+about+assisted+migration%3A+Ethical+implications+of+a+key+debate+regarding+the+future+of+Canada%27s+forests&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=755-765&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5558%2Ftfc2011-092&rft.aulast=Aubin&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=C.M.+Garbe&rft.au=S.+Colombo&rft.au=C.R.+Drever&rft.au=D.W.+McKenney&rft.au=C.+Messier&rft.au=J.+Pedlar&rft.au=M.A.+Saner&rft.au=L.+Vernier&rft.au=A.M.+Wellstead&rft.au=R.+Winder&rft.au=E.+Witten&rft.au=E.+Ste-Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-133" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#cite_ref-133" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://orionmagazine.org/article/rescuing-species/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Orion Magazine - Taking Wildness in Hand: Rescuing Species"</a>. <i>Orion Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2023-03-05</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Orion+Magazine&rft.atitle=Orion+Magazine+-+Taking+Wildness+in+Hand%3A+Rescuing+Species&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Forionmagazine.org%2Farticle%2Frescuing-species%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></span></li></ol></div></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit&section=25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFMacKenzie2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">MacKenzie D (18 May 2011). <a class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028136.300-calculations-may-have-overestimated-extinction-rates.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Calculations may have overestimated extinction rates"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Calculations+may+have+overestimated+extinction+rates&rft.date=2011-05-18&rft.aulast=MacKenzie&rft.aufirst=Debora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg21028136.300-calculations-may-have-overestimated-extinction-rates.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFRootPimm2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Root T, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Pimm" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stuart Pimm">Pimm S</a> (9 June 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140609192418/http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=11954" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Recent Research Shows Human Activity Driving Earth Towards Global Extinction Event"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_News_Network" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Real News Network">The Real News Network</a></i>. 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London.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Bumblebees%27+decline+points+to+mass+extinction+%E2%80%93+study&rft.date=2020-02-06&rft.au=PA+Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2020%2Ffeb%2F06%2Fbumblebees-decline-points-to-mass-extinction-study&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/half-of-plant-and-animal-species-at-risk-from-climate-change-in-world-s-most-important-natural-places" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Half of plant and animal species at risk from climate change in world's most important natural places"</a>. 14 March 2018.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Half+of+plant+and+animal+species+at+risk+from+climate+change+in+world%27s+most+important+natural+places&rft.date=2018-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwildlife.org%2Fpress-releases%2Fhalf-of-plant-and-animal-species-at-risk-from-climate-change-in-world-s-most-important-natural-places&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFCorporativa,_Iberdrola" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Corporativa, Iberdrola. <a class="external text" href="http://www.iberdrola.com/environment/climate-change-endangered-species" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Change Is Accelerating the Sixth Extinction"</a>. <i>Iberdrola</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Iberdrola&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+Is+Accelerating+the+Sixth+Extinction&rft.au=Corporativa%2C+Iberdrola&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iberdrola.com%2Fenvironment%2Fclimate-change-endangered-species&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExtinction+risk+from+climate+change"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://climate.nasa.gov/effects/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Effects of Climate Change"</a>. 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margin: 0px 4em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risks</a></div></th></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div><div class="catlinks" data-mw="interface" id="catlinks" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); clear: both; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-top: 1em; padding: 5px;"><div class="mw-normal-catlinks" id="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul style="display: inline; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li style="border-left: 0px; display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em 0px 0.25em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Extinction_events" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Extinction events">Extinction events</a></li><li style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_conservation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Environmental conservation">Environmental conservation</a></li><li style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Extinction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Extinction">Extinction</a></li></ul></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-42414546548771828742023-07-07T07:37:00.000-07:002023-07-07T07:37:15.396-07:00Human Extinction<p> <span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: calc(0.875em); font-style: italic;">mnicide" redirects here. For other uses, see</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: calc(0.875em); font-style: italic;"> </span><a class="mw-disambig" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnicide_(disambiguation)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: calc(0.875em); font-style: italic; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Omnicide (disambiguation)">Omnicide (disambiguation)</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: calc(0.875em); font-style: italic;">.</span></p><div class="mw-content-container" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; grid-area: pageContent / pageContent / pageContent / pageContent;"><main class="mw-body" id="content" role="main" style="direction: ltr; display: grid; grid-template-areas: "titlebar-cx ." "titlebar columnEnd" "toolbar columnEnd" "content columnEnd"; grid-template-columns: minmax(0px, 60em) min-content; grid-template-rows: min-content min-content min-content 1fr; margin-left: 0px; padding: 0.5em 0px 1.5em;"><div aria-labelledby="firstHeading" class="vector-body ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-targetContainer" data-mw-ve-target-container="" id="bodyContent" style="font-size: calc(0.875em); grid-area: content / content / content / content; line-height: 1.6; position: relative; z-index: 0;"><div class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" id="mw-content-text" lang="en" style="margin-top: 16px;"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: -0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">For methodological challenges quantifying and mitigating the risk, proposed mitigation measures, and related organizations, see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a>.</div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_explosion_of_the_hydrogen_bomb_Ivy_Mike.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="400" data-file-width="400" decoding="async" height="220" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/The_explosion_of_the_hydrogen_bomb_Ivy_Mike.jpg/220px-The_explosion_of_the_hydrogen_bomb_Ivy_Mike.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/The_explosion_of_the_hydrogen_bomb_Ivy_Mike.jpg/330px-The_explosion_of_the_hydrogen_bomb_Ivy_Mike.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/The_explosion_of_the_hydrogen_bomb_Ivy_Mike.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_explosion_of_the_hydrogen_bomb_Ivy_Mike.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_war" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nuclear war">Nuclear war</a> is an often-predicted cause of the extinction of humankind.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><b>Human extinction</b> is the hypothetical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinction">end</a> of the human species due to either natural causes such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_decline" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Population decline">population decline</a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-replacement_fertility" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sub-replacement fertility">sub-replacement fertility</a>, an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_event" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Impact event">asteroid impact</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Supervolcano">large-scale volcanism</a>, or via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Anthropogenic hazard">anthropogenic destruction</a> (self-extinction).</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">For the latter, some of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global catastrophic risk">many possible contributors</a> include <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Effects of global warming on humans">climate change</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nuclear holocaust">global nuclear annihilation</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_collapse" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ecological collapse">ecological collapse</a>. Other scenarios center on emerging technologies, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">advanced artificial intelligence</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_goo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gray goo">self-replicating nanobots</a>.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The scientific consensus is that there is a relatively low risk of near-term human extinction due to natural causes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:13_2-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:13-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup> The likelihood of human extinction through humankind's own activities, however, is a current area of research and debate.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_thought">History of thought</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: History of thought">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_history_of_thinking_about_human_extinction">Early history of thinking about human extinction</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Early history of thinking about human extinction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Before the 18th and 19th centuries, the possibility that humans or other organisms could become extinct was viewed with scepticism.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> It contradicted the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_plenitude" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Principle of plenitude">principle of plenitude</a>, a doctrine that all possible things exist.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> The principle traces back to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and was an important tenet of Christian theology.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Darwin_5-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Darwin-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup> Ancient Western philosophers such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> wrote of the end of humankind only as part of a cycle of renewal. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a> was a proto protestant who advocated for antinatalism that could lead to human extinction.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moll_2010_p._132_6-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moll_2010_p._132-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[6]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Welchman_2014_p._21_7-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Welchman_2014_p._21-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[7]</a></sup> Later philosophers such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazali" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Ockham" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Gerolamo Cardano</a> expanded the study of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Probability">probability</a> and began wondering if abstract worlds existed, including a world without humans. Physicist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Halley" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a> stated that the extinction of the human race may be beneficial to the future of the world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_2020_p._56_8-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan_2020_p._56-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The notion that species can become extinct gained scientific acceptance during the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> in the 17th and 18th centuries, and by 1800 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> had identified 23 extinct prehistoric species.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> The doctrine was further gradually undermined by evidence from the natural sciences, particular the discovery of fossil evidence of species that appeared to no longer exist, and the development of theories of evolution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Darwin_5-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Darwin-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup> In <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> discussed the extinction of species as a natural process and core component of natural selection.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Raup_9-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Raup-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup> Notably, Darwin was skeptical of the possibility of sudden extinctions, viewing it as a gradual process. He held that the abrupt disappearances of species from the fossil record were not evidence of catastrophic extinctions, but rather were a function of unrecognised gaps in the record.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Raup_9-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Raup-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">As the possibility of extinction became more widely established in the sciences, so did the prospect of human extinction.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> In the 19th century, human extinction became a popular topic in science (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Robert Malthus</a>'s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Principle_of_Population" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="An Essay on the Principle of Population">An Essay on the Principle of Population</a></i>) and fiction (e.g., <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Shelley" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a>'s <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Man_(Mary_Shelley_novel)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Last Man (Mary Shelley novel)">The Last Man</a></i>). In 1863, a few years after <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> published <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_King_(geologist)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="William King (geologist)">William King</a> proposed that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> were an extinct species of the genus <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Homo">Homo</a></i>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> authors and poets were particularly interested in the topic.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Byron" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a> wrote about the extinction of life on earth in his 1816 poem "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darkness_(poem)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Darkness (poem)">Darkness</a>", and in 1824 envisaged humanity being threatened by a comet impact, and employing a missile system to defend against it.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Shelley" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a>'s 1826 novel <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Man_(Mary_Shelley_novel)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Last Man (Mary Shelley novel)">The Last Man</a></i> is set in a world where humanity has been nearly destroyed by a mysterious plague.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> At the turn of the 20th century, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_cosmism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a>, a precursor to modern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Transhumanism">transhumanism</a>, advocated avoiding humanity's extinction by colonizing space.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-7" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Atomic_era">Atomic era</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Atomic era">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 172px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Operation_Castle_-_Romeo_001.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="576" data-file-width="504" decoding="async" height="194" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Operation_Castle_-_Romeo_001.jpg/170px-Operation_Castle_-_Romeo_001.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Operation_Castle_-_Romeo_001.jpg/255px-Operation_Castle_-_Romeo_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Operation_Castle_-_Romeo_001.jpg/340px-Operation_Castle_-_Romeo_001.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="170" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Operation_Castle_-_Romeo_001.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Romeo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Castle Romeo">Castle Romeo</a></i> nuclear test on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The invention of the atomic bomb prompted a wave of discussion about the risk of human extinction among scientists, intellectuals, and the public at large.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-8" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> In a 1945 essay, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> wrote that "[T]he prospect for the human race is sombre beyond all precedent. Mankind are faced with a clear-cut alternative: either we shall all perish, or we shall have to acquire some slight degree of common sense."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> In 1950, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a> suggested it was technologically feasible to build a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt bomb</a> that could render the planet unlivable. A 1950 Gallup poll found that 19% of Americans believed that another world war would mean "an end to mankind".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Erskine_11-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Erskine-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Carson" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a>'s 1962 <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Spring" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Silent Spring">Silent Spring</a></i> raised awareness of environmental catastrophe. In 1983, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon_Carter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Brandon Carter">Brandon Carter</a> proposed the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doomsday_argument" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a>, which used <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_probability" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian probability</a> to predict the total number of humans that will ever exist.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The discovery of "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_winter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>" in the early 1980s, a specific mechanism by which nuclear war could result in human extinction, again raised the issue to prominence. Writing about these findings in 1983, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Sagan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> argued that measuring the severity of extinction solely in terms of those who die "conceals its full impact", and that nuclear war "imperils all of our descendants, for as long as there will be humans."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Post_Cold_War">Post Cold War</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Post Cold War">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_A._Leslie" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="John A. Leslie">John Leslie</a>'s 1996 book <i>The End of The World</i> was an academic treatment of the science and ethics of human extinction. In it, Leslie considered a range of threats to humanity and what they have in common. In 2003, British <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer_Royal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Astronomer Royal">Astronomer Royal</a> Sir <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Rees" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Martin Rees">Martin Rees</a> published <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Final_Hour" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Our Final Hour">Our Final Hour</a></i>, in which he argues that advances in certain technologies create new threats for the survival of humankind and that the 21st century may be a critical moment in history when humanity's fate is decided.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:12_13-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:12-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> Edited by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nick Bostrom">Nick Bostrom</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_M._%C4%86irkovi%C4%87" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Milan M. Ćirković">Milan M. Ćirković</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Catastrophic_Risks_(book)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global Catastrophic Risks (book)">Global Catastrophic Risks</a></i> was published in 2008, a collection of essays from 26 academics on various global catastrophic and existential risks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[14]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toby_Ord" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a>'s 2020 book <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Precipice:_Existential_Risk_and_the_Future_of_Humanity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity">The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity</a></i> argues that preventing existential risks is one of the most important moral issues of our time. The book discusses, quantifies, and compares different existential risks, concluding that the greatest risks are presented by unaligned artificial intelligence and biotechnology.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_2020q_15-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_2020q-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[15]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Causes">Causes</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophe_scenarios" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global catastrophe scenarios">Global catastrophe scenarios</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Potential anthropogenic causes of human extinction include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nuclear warfare">global thermonuclear war</a>, deployment of a highly effective <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_agent" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biological agent">biological weapon</a>, an ecological collapse, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">runaway artificial intelligence</a>, runaway <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a> (such as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_goo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gray goo">grey goo</a> scenario), a scientific accident involving a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_black_hole" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Micro black hole">micro black hole</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="False vacuum decay">vacuum metastability disaster</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_overpopulation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Human overpopulation">overpopulation</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconsumption" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Overconsumption">increased consumption</a> pose the risk of resource depletion and a concomitant population crash, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_decline" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Population decline">population decline</a> by choosing to have fewer children, displacement of naturally evolved humans by a new species produced by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> or technological augmentation. Natural and external extinction risks include high-fatality-rate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Supervolcano">supervolcanic</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">eruption</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_event" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Impact event">asteroid impact</a>, nearby <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Supernova">supernova</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gamma-ray burst">gamma-ray bursts</a>, extreme <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flare" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar flare">solar flare</a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien_invasion" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alien invasion">alien invasion</a>.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Humans (e.g. <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_sapiens_sapiens" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Homo sapiens sapiens">Homo sapiens sapiens</a></i>) as a species may also be considered to have "gone extinct" simply by being replaced with distant descendants whose continued <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Evolution">evolution</a> may produce new <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> species or subspecies.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Without intervention by unexpected forces, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stellar evolution">stellar evolution</a> of the Sun <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_Earth#Solar_evolution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Future of Earth">is expected</a> to make Earth uninhabitable, then destroy it. Depending on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">its ultimate fate</a>, the entire universe may eventually become uninhabitable.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Probability">Probability</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Probability">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Natural_vs._anthropogenic">Natural vs. anthropogenic</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Natural vs. anthropogenic">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Experts generally agree that anthropogenic existential risks are (much) more likely than natural risks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:12_13-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:12-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:0-17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[17]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:13_2-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:13-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Frequently_Asked_Questions_18-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Frequently_Asked_Questions-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[18]</a></sup> A key difference between these risk types is that empirical evidence can place an upper bound on the level of natural risk.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:13_2-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:13-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup> Humanity has existed for at least 200,000 years, over which it has been subject to a roughly constant level of natural risk. If the natural risk were sufficiently high, then it would be highly unlikely that humanity would have survived as long as it has. Based on a formalization of this argument, researchers have concluded that we can be confident that natural risk is lower than 1 in 14,000 per year.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:13_2-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:13-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Another empirical method to study the likelihood of certain natural risks is to investigate the geological record.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup> For example, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_event" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Impact event">comet or asteroid impact event</a> sufficient in scale to cause an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_winter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Impact winter">impact winter</a> that would cause human extinction before the year 2100 has been estimated at one-in-a-million.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-matheny_19-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-matheny-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[20]</a></sup> Moreover, large <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Supervolcano">supervolcano</a> eruptions may cause a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_winter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Volcanic winter">volcanic winter</a> that could endanger the survival of humanity.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:11_21-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:11-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[21]</a></sup> The geological record suggests that supervolcanic eruptions are estimated to occur on average about once every 50,000 years, though most such eruptions would not reach the scale required to cause human extinction.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:11_21-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:11-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[21]</a></sup> Famously, the supervolcano <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theory" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Toba catastrophe theory">Mt. Toba may have almost wiped out humanity</a> at the time of its last eruption (though this is contentious).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:11_21-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:11-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[21]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[22]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Since anthropogenic risk is a relatively recent phenomenon, humanity's track record of survival cannot provide similar assurances.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:13_2-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-:13-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup> Humanity has only survived 77 years since the creation of nuclear weapons, and for future technologies, there is no track record at all. This has led thinkers like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Sagan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> to conclude that humanity is currently in a "time of perils"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[23]</a></sup> – a uniquely dangerous period in human history, where it is subject to unprecedented levels of risk, beginning from when humans first started posing risk to themselves through their actions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[24]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Risk_estimates">Risk estimates</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Risk estimates">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Given the limitations of ordinary observation and modeling, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_method" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Delphi method">expert elicitation</a> is frequently used instead to obtain probability estimates.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-probabilities_and_methodologies_25-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-probabilities_and_methodologies-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup></p><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Humanity has a 95% probability of being extinct in 7,800,000 years, according to J. Richard Gott's formulation of the controversial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doomsday_argument" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a>, which argues that we have probably already lived through half the duration of human history.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[26]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In 1996, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_A._Leslie" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="John A. Leslie">John Leslie</a> estimated a 30% risk over the next five centuries (equivalent to around 9% per century, on average).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeslie1996146_27-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie1996146-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[27]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In 2003, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Rees" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Martin Rees">Martin Rees</a> estimated a 50% chance of collapse of civilisation in the twenty-first century.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[28]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Challenges_Foundation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global Challenges Foundation">Global Challenges Foundation</a>'s 2016 annual report estimates an annual probability of human extinction of at least 0.05% per year.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-gcf_atlantic_29-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-gcf_atlantic-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[29]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">A 2016 survey of AI experts found a median estimate of 5% that human-level AI would cause an outcome that was "extremely bad (e.g. human extinction)".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[30]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In 2020, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toby_Ord" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a> estimates existential risk in the next century at "1 in 6" in his book <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Precipice:_Existential_Risk_and_the_Future_of_Humanity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity">The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">As of April 2023, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaculus" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Metaculus">Metaculus</a> users estimate a 2% probability of human extinction by 2100.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[32]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In a 2010 interview with <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Australian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Australian">The Australian</a></i>, Australian scientist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Fenner" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Frank Fenner">Frank Fenner</a> predicted the extinction of the human race within a century, primarily as the result of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_overpopulation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Human overpopulation">human overpopulation</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a> and climate change.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">According to a 2020 study published in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Reports" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific Reports">Scientific Reports</a></i>, if <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> and resource <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconsumption" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Overconsumption">consumption</a> continue at current rates, they could culminate in a "catastrophic collapse in human population" and possibly "an irreversible collapse of our civilization" in the next 20 to 40 years. According to the most optimistic scenario provided by the study, the chances that human civilization survives are smaller than 10%. To avoid this collapse, the study says, humanity should pass from a civilization dominated by the economy to a "cultural society" that "privileges the interest of the ecosystem above the individual interest of its components, but eventually in accordance with the overall communal interest."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[34]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[35]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Nick Bostrom, a philosopher at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> known for his work on <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_risk" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Existential risk">existential risk</a>, argues that it would be "misguided"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bostrom_2002_36-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Bostrom_2002-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup> to assume that the probability of near-term extinction is less than 25% and that it will be "a tall order" for the human race to "get our precautions sufficiently right the first time", given that an existential risk provides no opportunity to learn from failure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-matheny_19-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-matheny-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_A._Leslie" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="John A. Leslie">John Leslie</a> assigns a 70% chance of humanity surviving the next five centuries, based partly on the controversial philosophical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doomsday_argument" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doomsday argument">doomsday argument</a> that Leslie champions. Leslie's argument is somewhat <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequentist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Frequentist">frequentist</a>, based on the observation that human extinction has never been observed, but requires subjective anthropic arguments.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[37]</a></sup> Leslie also discusses the anthropic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survivorship_bias" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Survivorship bias">survivorship bias</a> (which he calls an "observational selection" effect on page 139) and states that the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> certainty of observing an "undisastrous past" could make it difficult to argue that we must be safe because nothing terrible has yet occurred. He quotes <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holger_Bech_Nielsen" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Holger Bech Nielsen">Holger Bech Nielsen</a>'s formulation: "We do not even know if there should exist some extremely dangerous decay of say the proton which caused the eradication of the earth, because if it happens we would no longer be there to observe it and if it does not happen there is nothing to observe."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeslie1996139_38-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie1996139-38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[38]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Jean-Marc Salotti calculated the probability of human extinction caused by a giant asteroid impact.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Salotti_39-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Salotti-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[39]</a></sup> It is between 0.03 and 0.3 for the next billion years, if there is no colonization of other planets. According to that study, the most frightening object is a giant long-period comet with a warning time of a few years only and therefore no time for any intervention in space or settlement on the Moon or Mars. The probability of a giant comet impact in the next hundred years is 2.2E-12.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Salotti_39-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Salotti-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[39]</a></sup></li></ul><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Further information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust#Likelihood_of_complete_human_extinction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust § Likelihood of complete human extinction</a></div><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Individual_vs._species_risks">Individual vs. species risks</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Individual vs. species risks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Although existential risks are less manageable by individuals than – for example – health risks, according to Ken Olum, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Knobe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Joshua Knobe">Joshua Knobe</a>, and Alexander Vilenkin, the possibility of human extinction <i>does</i> have practical implications. For instance, if the "universal" <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doomsday_argument" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a> is accepted it changes the most likely source of disasters, and hence the most efficient means of preventing them. They write: "... you should be more concerned that a large number of asteroids have not yet been detected than about the particular orbit of each one. You should not worry especially about the chance that some specific nearby star will become a supernova, but more about the chance that supernovas are more deadly to nearby life than we believe."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Difficulty">Difficulty</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Difficulty">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some scholars argue that certain scenarios such as global <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nuclear warfare">thermonuclear war</a> would have difficulty eradicating every last settlement on Earth. Physicist Willard Wells points out that any credible extinction scenario would have to reach into a diverse set of areas, including the underground subways of major cities, the mountains of Tibet, the remotest islands of the South Pacific, and even to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMurdo_Station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</a> in Antarctica, which has contingency plans and supplies for long isolation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-wells_41-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-wells-41" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[41]</a></sup> In addition, elaborate bunkers exist for government leaders to occupy during a nuclear war.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-matheny_19-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-matheny-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup> The existence of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_submarine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nuclear submarine">nuclear submarines</a>, which can stay hundreds of meters deep in the ocean for potentially years at a time, should also be considered. Any number of events could lead to a massive loss of human life, but if the last few (see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Minimum viable population">minimum viable population</a>) most resilient humans are unlikely to also die off, then that particular human extinction scenario may not seem credible.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-42" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[42]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethics">Ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Value_of_human_life">Value of human life</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Value of human life">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Placard_against_human_extinction,_Extinction_Rebellion_(cropped).jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="1568" data-file-width="1109" decoding="async" height="311" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Placard_against_human_extinction%2C_Extinction_Rebellion_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Placard_against_human_extinction%2C_Extinction_Rebellion_%28cropped%29.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Placard_against_human_extinction%2C_Extinction_Rebellion_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Placard_against_human_extinction%2C_Extinction_Rebellion_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Placard_against_human_extinction%2C_Extinction_Rebellion_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Placard_against_human_extinction%2C_Extinction_Rebellion_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Placard_against_human_extinction,_Extinction_Rebellion_(cropped).jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Placard against omnicide, at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_Rebellion" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinction Rebellion">Extinction Rebellion</a> (2018)</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">"Existential risks" are risks that threaten the entire future of humanity, whether by causing human extinction or by otherwise permanently crippling human progress.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup> Multiple scholars have argued based on the size of the "cosmic endowment" that because of the inconceivably large number of potential future lives that are at stake, even small reductions of existential risk have great value.</p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In one of the earliest discussions of ethics of human extinction, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Parfit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a> offers the following thought experiment:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Parfit_1984_43-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Parfit_1984-43" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[43]</a></sup></p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><p style="margin: 0px 0px 0.5em;">I believe that if we destroy mankind, as we now can, this outcome will be much worse than most people think. Compare three outcomes:<br /></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">(1) Peace.<br />(2) A nuclear war that kills 99% of the world's existing population.<br />(3) A nuclear war that kills 100%.<br /></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">(2) would be worse than (1), and (3) would be worse than (2). Which is the greater of these two differences? Most people believe that the greater difference is between (1) and (2). I believe that the difference between (2) and (3) is very much greater.</p><div class="templatequotecite" style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-left: 1.6em;">— <cite style="font-style: inherit;">Derek Parfit</cite></div></blockquote><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The scale of what is lost in an existential catastrophe is determined by humanity's long-term potential – what humanity could expect to achieve if it survived.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup> From a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a> perspective, the value of protecting humanity is the product of its duration (how long humanity survives), its size (how many humans there are over time), and its quality (on average, how good is life for future people).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 273">: 273 </span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-44" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-44" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[44]</a></sup> On average, species survive for around a million years before going extinct. Parfit points out that the Earth will remain habitable for around a billion years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Parfit_1984_43-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Parfit_1984-43" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[43]</a></sup> And these might be lower bounds on our potential: if humanity is able to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_colonization" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Space colonization">expand beyond Earth</a>, it could greatly increase the human population and survive for trillions of years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-waste_45-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-waste-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 21">: 21 </span></sup> The size of the foregone potential that would be lost, were humanity to become extinct, is very large. Therefore, reducing existential risk by even a small amount would have a very significant moral value.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[46]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Sagan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> wrote in 1983: "If we are required to calibrate extinction in numerical terms, I would be sure to include the number of people in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_generations" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Future generations">future generations</a> who would not be born.... (By one calculation), the stakes are one million times greater for extinction than for the more modest nuclear wars that kill "only" hundreds of millions of people. There are many other possible measures of the potential loss – including culture and science, the evolutionary history of the planet, and the significance of the lives of all of our ancestors who contributed to the future of their descendants. Extinction is the undoing of the human enterprise."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Adams</a> in 1989 rejects Parfit's "impersonal" views but speaks instead of a moral imperative for loyalty and commitment to "the future of humanity as a vast project... The aspiration for a better society – more just, more rewarding, and more peaceful... our interest in the lives of our children and grandchildren, and the hopes that they will be able, in turn, to have the lives of their children and grandchildren as projects."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-48" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[48]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Philosopher <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nick Bostrom">Nick Bostrom</a> argues in 2013 that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preference_utilitarianism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Preference utilitarianism">preference-satisfactionist</a>, democratic, custodial, and intuitionist arguments all converge on the common-sense view that preventing existential risk is a high moral priority, even if the exact "degree of badness" of human extinction varies between these philosophies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom201323–24_49-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom201323%E2%80%9324-49" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[49]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Parfit argues that the size of the "cosmic endowment" can be calculated from the following argument: If Earth remains habitable for a billion more years and can sustainably support a population of more than a billion humans, then there is a potential for 10<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">16</sup> (or 10,000,000,000,000,000) human lives of normal duration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-parfit_50-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-parfit-50" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[50]</a></sup> Bostrom goes further, stating that if the universe is empty, then the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_horizon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cosmological horizon">accessible universe</a> can support at least 10<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">34</sup> biological human life-years; and, if some humans were uploaded onto computers, could even support the equivalent of 10<sup style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1;">54</sup> cybernetic human life-years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some economists and philosophers have defended views, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_discounting" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Exponential discounting">exponential discounting</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_ethics#Person-affecting_views" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Population ethics">person-affecting views of population ethics</a>, on which future people do not matter (or matter much less), morally speaking.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-51" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[51]</a></sup> While these views are controversial,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-matheny_19-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-matheny-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-53" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[53]</a></sup> even they would agree that an existential catastrophe would be among the worst things imaginable. It would cut short the lives of eight billion presently existing people, destroying all of what makes their lives valuable, and most likely subjecting many of them to profound suffering. So even setting aside the value of future generations, there may be strong reasons to reduce existential risk, grounded in concern for presently existing people.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-54" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-54" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[54]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Beyond utilitarianism, other moral perspectives lend support to the importance of reducing existential risk. An existential catastrophe would destroy more than just humanity – it would destroy all cultural artifacts, languages, and traditions, and many of the things we value.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-7" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sagan_1983_55-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Sagan_1983-55" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[55]</a></sup> So moral viewpoints on which we have duties to protect and cherish things of value would see this as a huge loss that should be avoided.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-8" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup> One can also consider reasons grounded in duties to past generations. For instance, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Burke" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> writes of a "partnership ... between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-56" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[56]</a></sup> If one takes seriously the debt humanity owes to past generations, Ord argues the best way of repaying it might be to 'pay it forward', and ensure that humanity's inheritance is passed down to future generations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-9" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 49–51">: 49–51 </span></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">There are several economists who have discussed the importance of global catastrophic risks. For example, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Weitzman" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Martin Weitzman">Martin Weitzman</a> argues that most of the expected economic damage from climate change may come from the small chance that warming greatly exceeds the mid-range expectations, resulting in catastrophic damage.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-weitzman1_57-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-weitzman1-57" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[57]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Posner" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Richard Posner">Richard Posner</a> has argued that humanity is doing far too little, in general, about small, hard-to-estimate risks of large-scale catastrophes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-58" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[58]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Voluntary_extinction">Voluntary extinction</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Voluntary extinction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement_-_motto.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="137" data-file-width="500" decoding="async" height="60" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement_-_motto.jpg/220px-Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement_-_motto.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement_-_motto.jpg/330px-Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement_-_motto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement_-_motto.jpg/440px-Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement_-_motto.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement_-_motto.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some philosophers adopt the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinatalist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Antinatalist">antinatalist</a> position that human extinction would not be a bad thing, but a good thing. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Benatar" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="David Benatar">David Benatar</a> argues that coming into existence is always serious harm, and therefore it is better that people do not come into existence in the future.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-59" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[59]</a></sup> Further, David Benatar, animal rights activist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Best" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Steven Best">Steven Best</a>, and anarchist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_May" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Todd May">Todd May</a>, posit that human extinction would be a positive thing for the other organisms on the planet, and the planet itself, citing, for example, the omnicidal nature of human civilization.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-60" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-60" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[60]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-61" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[61]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-62" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[62]</a></sup> The environmental view in favor of human extinction is shared by the members of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Euthanasia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a> who call for refraining from reproduction and allowing the human species to go peacefully extinct, thus stopping further <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-63" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[63]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="In_fiction">In fiction</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: In fiction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Cousin_de_Grainville" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jean-Baptiste Cousin de Grainville">Jean-Baptiste Cousin de Grainville</a>'s 1805 <i>Le dernier homme</i> (<i>The Last Man</i>), which depicts human extinction due to infertility, is considered the first modern apocalyptic novel and credited with launching the genre.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Wagar_64-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Wagar-64" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[64]</a></sup> Other notable early works include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Shelley" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a>'s 1826 <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Man_(Mary_Shelley_novel)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Last Man (Mary Shelley novel)">The Last Man</a></i>, depicting human extinction caused by a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaf_Stapledon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Olaf Stapledon">Olaf Stapledon</a>'s 1937 <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Maker" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Star Maker">Star Maker</a></i>, "a comparative study of omnicide".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moynihan_4-9" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some 21st century pop-science works, including <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Without_Us" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The World Without Us">The World Without Us</a></i> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Weisman" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alan Weisman">Alan Weisman</a>, and the TV specials <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_After_People" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Life After People">Life After People</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath:_Population_Zero" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aftermath: Population Zero">Aftermath: Population Zero</a></i> pose a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a>: what would happen to the rest of the planet if humans suddenly disappeared?<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-65" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[65]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-66" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-66" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[66]</a></sup> A threat of human extinction, such as through a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Technological singularity">technological singularity</a> (also called an intelligence explosion), drives the plot of innumerable science fiction stories; an influential early example is the 1951 film adaption of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Worlds_Collide" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="When Worlds Collide">When Worlds Collide</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-67" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-67" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[67]</a></sup> Usually the extinction threat is narrowly avoided, but some exceptions exist, such as <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.U.R." style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="R.U.R.">R.U.R.</a></i> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Spielberg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Steven Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a>'s <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.I._Artificial_Intelligence" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="A.I. Artificial Intelligence">A.I.</a></i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-68" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_note-68" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[68]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization_collapse" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Civilization collapse">Civilization collapse</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eschatology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_event" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_Rebellion" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinction Rebellion">Extinction Rebellion</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Filter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Great Filter">Great Filter</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speculative_evolution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Speculative evolution">Speculative evolution</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_III" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="World War III">World War III</a></li></ul></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12.6px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns" style="column-width: 30em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><ol class="references" style="counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-parent 0 mw-references 0 list-item 0; font-size: 12.6px; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li id="cite_note-1" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFDi_Mardi2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Di Mardi (October 15, 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201014-totalitarian-world-in-chains-artificial-intelligence" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The grim fate that could be 'worse than extinction'<span class="cs1-kern-right" style="padding-right: 0.2em;"></span>"</a>. <i>BBC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">November 11,</span> 2020</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">When we think of existential risks, events like nuclear war or asteroid impacts often come to mind.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=The+grim+fate+that+could+be+%27worse+than+extinction%27&rft.date=2020-10-15&rft.au=Di+Mardi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Ffuture%2Farticle%2F20201014-totalitarian-world-in-chains-artificial-intelligence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:13-2" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:13_2-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:13_2-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:13_2-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:13_2-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:13_2-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSnyder-BeattieOrdBonsall2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Snyder-Beattie, Andrew E.; Ord, Toby; Bonsall, Michael B. (July 30, 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6667434" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"An upper bound for the background rate of human extinction"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 11054. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatSR...911054S" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2019NatSR...911054S</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-47540-7" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41598-019-47540-7</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2045-2322</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6667434" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">6667434</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31363134" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">31363134</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=An+upper+bound+for+the+background+rate+of+human+extinction&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=11054&rft.date=2019-07-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6667434%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatSR...911054S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31363134&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-019-47540-7&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=Snyder-Beattie&rft.aufirst=Andrew+E.&rft.au=Ord%2C+Toby&rft.au=Bonsall%2C+Michael+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6667434&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013-3" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom2013_3-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostrom2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom 2013</a>.</span></li><li id="cite_note-Moynihan-4" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_4-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMoynihan2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Moynihan, Thomas (September 23, 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/how-humanity-discovered-its-possible-extinction-timeline/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How Humanity Came To Contemplate Its Possible Extinction: A Timeline"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="MIT Press">The MIT Press Reader</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">October 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+MIT+Press+Reader&rft.atitle=How+Humanity+Came+To+Contemplate+Its+Possible+Extinction%3A+A+Timeline&rft.date=2020-09-23&rft.aulast=Moynihan&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthereader.mitpress.mit.edu%2Fhow-humanity-discovered-its-possible-extinction-timeline%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span><br />See also:<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMoynihan2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Moynihan, Thomas (February 2020). "Existential risk and human extinction: An intellectual history". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futures_(journal)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Futures (journal)">Futures</a></i>. <b>116</b>: 102495. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.futures.2019.102495" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.futures.2019.102495</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0016-3287" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0016-3287</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213388167" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">213388167</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Futures&rft.atitle=Existential+risk+and+human+extinction%3A+An+intellectual+history&rft.volume=116&rft.pages=102495&rft.date=2020-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213388167%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0016-3287&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.futures.2019.102495&rft.aulast=Moynihan&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFMoynihan2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Moynihan, Thomas (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7M_tDwAAQBAJ" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>X-Risk: How Humanity Discovered Its Own Extinction</i></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-913029-82-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-913029-82-1"><bdi>978-1-913029-82-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=X-Risk%3A+How+Humanity+Discovered+Its+Own+Extinction&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-913029-82-1&rft.aulast=Moynihan&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7M_tDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li></ul></span></li><li id="cite_note-Darwin-5" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Darwin_5-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Darwin_5-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFDarwinCosta2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Darwin, Charles; Costa, James T. (2009). <i>The Annotated Origin</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 121. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674032811" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674032811"><bdi>978-0674032811</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Annotated+Origin&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0674032811&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Costa%2C+James+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Moll_2010_p._132-6" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moll_2010_p._132_6-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFMoll2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Moll, S. (2010). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P3DGtdAYB9oC&pg=PA132" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The Arch-heretic Marcion</i></a>. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament. Mohr Siebeck. p. 132. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150268-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150268-2"><bdi>978-3-16-150268-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">June 11,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arch-heretic+Marcion&rft.series=Wissenschaftliche+Untersuchungen+zum+Neuen+Testament&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-16-150268-2&rft.aulast=Moll&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP3DGtdAYB9oC%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Welchman_2014_p._21-7" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Welchman_2014_p._21_7-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFWelchman2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Welchman, A. (2014). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-8zlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Politics of Religion/Religions of Politics</i></a>. Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures. Springer Netherlands. p. 21. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-9448-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-017-9448-0"><bdi>978-94-017-9448-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">June 11,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+of+Religion%2FReligions+of+Politics&rft.series=Sophia+Studies+in+Cross-cultural+Philosophy+of+Traditions+and+Cultures&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-94-017-9448-0&rft.aulast=Welchman&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-8zlBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Moynihan_2020_p._56-8" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Moynihan_2020_p._56_8-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFMoynihan2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Moynihan, T. (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7oUBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>X-Risk: How Humanity Discovered Its Own Extinction</i></a>. MIT Press. p. 56. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-913029-84-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-913029-84-5"><bdi>978-1-913029-84-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">October 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=X-Risk%3A+How+Humanity+Discovered+Its+Own+Extinction&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-913029-84-5&rft.aulast=Moynihan&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7oUBEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Raup-9" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Raup_9-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Raup_9-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFRaup1995" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Raup, David M. (1995). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232212/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Role of Extinction in Evolution"</a>. In Fitch, W. M.; Ayala, F. J. (eds.). <i>Tempo And Mode in Evolution: Genetics And Paleontology 50 Years After Simpson</i>. National Academies Press (US).</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Extinction+in+Evolution&rft.btitle=Tempo+And+Mode+in+Evolution%3A+Genetics+And+Paleontology+50+Years+After+Simpson&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press+%28US%29&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Raup&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK232212%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-10" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFRussell1945" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Russell, Bertrand (1945). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200807144106/http://www.personal.kent.edu/~rmuhamma/Philosophy/RBwritings/bombCivilization.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Bomb and Civilization"</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.personal.kent.edu/~rmuhamma/Philosophy/RBwritings/bombCivilization.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on August 7, 2020.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Bomb+and+Civilization&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.personal.kent.edu%2F~rmuhamma%2FPhilosophy%2FRBwritings%2FbombCivilization.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Erskine-11" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Erskine_11-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFErskine1963" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Erskine, Hazel Gaudet (1963). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2746913" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Polls: Atomic Weapons and Nuclear Energy"</a>. <i>The Public Opinion Quarterly</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 155–190. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F267159" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1086/267159</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2746913" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2746913</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Public+Opinion+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Polls%3A+Atomic+Weapons+and+Nuclear+Energy&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=155-190&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F267159&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2746913%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Erskine&rft.aufirst=Hazel+Gaudet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2746913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-12" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFSagan2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sagan, Carl (January 28, 2009). <a class="external text" href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1983-12-01/nuclear-war-and-climatic-catastrophe-some-policy-implications" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Nuclear War and Climatic Catastrophe: Some Policy Implications"</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20041818" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.2307/20041818</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20041818" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20041818</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 11,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nuclear+War+and+Climatic+Catastrophe%3A+Some+Policy+Implications&rft.date=2009-01-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20041818&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20041818%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2F1983-12-01%2Fnuclear-war-and-climatic-catastrophe-some-policy-implications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:12-13" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:12_13-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:12_13-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFReese2003" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Reese, Martin (2003). <i>Our Final Hour: A Scientist's Warning: How Terror, Error, and Environmental Disaster Threaten Humankind's Future In This Century - On Earth and Beyond</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Books" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-06863-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-06863-4"><bdi>0-465-06863-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Final+Hour%3A+A+Scientist%27s+Warning%3A+How+Terror%2C+Error%2C+and+Environmental+Disaster+Threaten+Humankind%27s+Future+In+This+Century+-+On+Earth+and+Beyond&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-465-06863-4&rft.aulast=Reese&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-14" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBostromĆirković2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nick Bostrom">Bostrom, Nick</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_M._%C4%86irkovi%C4%87" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Milan M. Ćirković">Ćirković, Milan M.</a>, eds. (2008). <i>Global catastrophic risks</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199606504" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199606504"><bdi>978-0199606504</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+catastrophic+risks&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0199606504&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Ord_2020q-15" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_2020q_15-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFOrd2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Ord, Toby (2020). <i>The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity</i>. New York: Hachette. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780316484916" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/9780316484916"><bdi>9780316484916</bdi></a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">This is an equivalent, though crisper statement of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nick Bostrom">Nick Bostrom</a>'s definition: "An existential risk is one that threatens the premature extinction of Earth-originating intelligent life or the permanent and drastic destruction of its potential for desirable future development." Source: Bostrom, Nick (2013). "Existential Risk Prevention as Global Priority". Global Policy. 4:15-31.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Precipice%3A+Existential+Risk+and+the+Future+of+Humanity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hachette&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780316484916&rft.aulast=Ord&rft.aufirst=Toby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Ord_20202-16" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Ord_20202_16-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFOrd2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Ord, Toby (2020). <i>The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity</i>. New York: Hachette. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780316484916" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/9780316484916"><bdi>9780316484916</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Precipice%3A+Existential+Risk+and+the+Future+of+Humanity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hachette&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780316484916&rft.aulast=Ord&rft.aufirst=Toby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:0-17" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:0_17-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBostromSandberg2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nick Bostrom">Bostrom, Nick</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Sandberg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Anders Sandberg">Sandberg, Anders</a> (2008). <a class="external text" href="https://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/reports/2008-1.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Global Catastrophic Risks Survey"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>FHI Technical Report #2008-1</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FHI+Technical+Report+%232008-1&rft.atitle=Global+Catastrophic+Risks+Survey&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Bostrom&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft.au=Sandberg%2C+Anders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fhi.ox.ac.uk%2Freports%2F2008-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Frequently_Asked_Questions-18" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Frequently_Asked_Questions_18-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://existential-risk.org/faq.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Frequently Asked Questions"</a>. <i>Existential Risk</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 26,</span> 2013</span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">The great bulk of existential risk in the foreseeable future is anthropogenic; that is, arising from human activity.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Existential+Risk&rft.atitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexistential-risk.org%2Ffaq.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-matheny-19" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-matheny_19-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-matheny_19-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-matheny_19-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-matheny_19-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMatheny2007" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Matheny, Jason Gaverick (2007). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140827213919/http://users.physics.harvard.edu/~wilson/pmpmta/Mahoney_extinction.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Reducing the Risk of Human Extinction"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Risk Analysis</i>. <b>27</b> (5): 1335–1344. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1539-6924.2007.00960.x" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/j.1539-6924.2007.00960.x</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18076500" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">18076500</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14265396" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">14265396</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://users.physics.harvard.edu/~wilson/pmpmta/Mahoney_extinction.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> on August 27, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 1,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Risk+Analysis&rft.atitle=Reducing+the+Risk+of+Human+Extinction&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1335-1344&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14265396%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18076500&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1539-6924.2007.00960.x&rft.aulast=Matheny&rft.aufirst=Jason+Gaverick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.physics.harvard.edu%2F~wilson%2Fpmpmta%2FMahoney_extinction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-20" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAsherBaileyEmel'yanenkoNapier2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Asher, D.J.; Bailey, M.E.; Emel'yanenko, V.; Napier, W.M. (2005). <a class="external text" href="http://www.arm.ac.uk/preprints/455.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Earth in the cosmic shooting gallery"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Observatory</i>. <b>125</b>: 319–322. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Obs...125..319A" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2005Obs...125..319A</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Observatory&rft.atitle=Earth+in+the+cosmic+shooting+gallery&rft.volume=125&rft.pages=319-322&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Obs...125..319A&rft.aulast=Asher&rft.aufirst=D.J.&rft.au=Bailey%2C+M.E.&rft.au=Emel%27yanenko%2C+V.&rft.au=Napier%2C+W.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arm.ac.uk%2Fpreprints%2F455.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:11-21" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:11_21-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:11_21-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-:11_21-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFRampinoAmbrose2002" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Rampino, M.R.; Ambrose, S.H. (2002). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924001405/http://www.eos.ubc.ca/~mjelline/website212/rampino02.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Super eruptions as a threat to civilizations on Earth-like planets"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Icarus</i>. <b>156</b> (2): 562–569. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Icar..156..562R" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2002Icar..156..562R</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Ficar.2001.6808" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1006/icar.2001.6808</a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.eos.ubc.ca/~mjelline/website212/rampino02.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> on September 24, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">February 14,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Icarus&rft.atitle=Super+eruptions+as+a+threat+to+civilizations+on+Earth-like+planets&rft.volume=156&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=562-569&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Ficar.2001.6808&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Icar..156..562R&rft.aulast=Rampino&rft.aufirst=M.R.&rft.au=Ambrose%2C+S.H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eos.ubc.ca%2F~mjelline%2Fwebsite212%2Frampino02.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-22" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFYostJacksonStoneCohen2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Yost, Chad L.; Jackson, Lily J.; Stone, Jeffery R.; Cohen, Andrew S. (March 1, 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248417302750" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Subdecadal phytolith and charcoal records from Lake Malawi, East Africa imply minimal effects on human evolution from the ∼74 ka Toba supereruption"</a>. <i>Journal of Human Evolution</i>. <b>116</b>: 75–94. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2017.11.005" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.11.005</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0047-2484" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0047-2484</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29477183" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">29477183</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Evolution&rft.atitle=Subdecadal+phytolith+and+charcoal+records+from+Lake+Malawi%2C+East+Africa+imply+minimal+effects+on+human+evolution+from+the+%E2%88%BC74+ka+Toba+supereruption&rft.volume=116&rft.pages=75-94&rft.date=2018-03-01&rft.issn=0047-2484&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29477183&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2017.11.005&rft.aulast=Yost&rft.aufirst=Chad+L.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Lily+J.&rft.au=Stone%2C+Jeffery+R.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Andrew+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0047248417302750&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-23" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFSagan1994" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Sagan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a> (1994). <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pale_Blue_Dot_(book)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pale Blue Dot (book)">Pale Blue Dot</a></i>. Random House. pp. 305–6. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-43841-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-43841-6"><bdi>0-679-43841-6</bdi></a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Some planetary civilizations see their way through, place limits on what may and what must not be done, and safely pass through the time of perils. Others are not so lucky or so prudent, perish.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pale+Blue+Dot&rft.pages=305-6&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-679-43841-6&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-24" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFParfit2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Parfit" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit, Derek</a> (2011). <i>On What Matters Vol. 2</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 616. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199681044" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/9780199681044"><bdi>9780199681044</bdi></a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">We live during the hinge of history ... If we act wisely in the next few centuries, humanity will survive its most dangerous and decisive period.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+What+Matters+Vol.+2&rft.pages=616&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199681044&rft.aulast=Parfit&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-probabilities_and_methodologies-25" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-probabilities_and_methodologies_25-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFRoweBeard2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Rowe, Thomas; Beard, Simon (2018). <a class="external text" href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/89506/1/Beard_Existential-Risk-Assessments_Accepted.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Probabilities, methodologies and the evidence base in existential risk assessments"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Working Paper, Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 26,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Working+Paper%2C+Centre+for+the+Study+of+Existential+Risk&rft.atitle=Probabilities%2C+methodologies+and+the+evidence+base+in+existential+risk+assessments&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Beard%2C+Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.lse.ac.uk%2F89506%2F1%2FBeard_Existential-Risk-Assessments_Accepted.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-26" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFJ._Richard_Gott,_III1993" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">J. Richard Gott, III (1993). "Implications of the Copernican principle for our future prospects". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>363</b> (6427): 315–319. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Natur.363..315G" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1993Natur.363..315G</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F363315a0" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/363315a0</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4252750" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">4252750</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Implications+of+the+Copernican+principle+for+our+future+prospects&rft.volume=363&rft.issue=6427&rft.pages=315-319&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4252750%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F363315a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993Natur.363..315G&rft.au=J.+Richard+Gott%2C+III&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie1996146-27" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeslie1996146_27-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFLeslie1996" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Leslie 1996</a>, p. 146.</span></li><li id="cite_note-28" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFRees2004" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Rees, Martin (2004) [2003]. <i>Our Final Century</i>. Arrow Books. p. 9.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Final+Century&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Arrow+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Rees&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-gcf_atlantic-29" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-gcf_atlantic_29-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFMeyer2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Meyer, Robinson (April 29, 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/04/a-human-extinction-isnt-that-unlikely/480444/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Human Extinction Isn't That Unlikely"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i>. Boston, Massachusetts: Emerson Collective<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">April 30,</span>2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Human+Extinction+Isn%27t+That+Unlikely&rft.date=2016-04-29&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Robinson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2016%2F04%2Fa-human-extinction-isnt-that-unlikely%2F480444%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-30" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation arxiv cs1" id="CITEREFGraceSalvatierDafoeZhang2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Grace, Katja; Salvatier, John; Dafoe, Allen; Zhang, Baobao; Evans, Owain (May 3, 2018). "When Will AI Exceed Human Performance? Evidence from AI Experts". <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1705.08807" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1705.08807</a></span> [<a class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.AI" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">cs.AI</a>].</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=When+Will+AI+Exceed+Human+Performance%3F+Evidence+from+AI+Experts&rft.date=2018-05-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1705.08807&rft.aulast=Grace&rft.aufirst=Katja&rft.au=Salvatier%2C+John&rft.au=Dafoe%2C+Allen&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Baobao&rft.au=Evans%2C+Owain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-31" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation magazine cs1" id="CITEREFPurtill" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Purtill, Corinne. <a class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/annals-of-inquiry/how-close-is-humanity-to-the-edge" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"How Close Is Humanity to the Edge?"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">January 8,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=How+Close+Is+Humanity+to+the+Edge%3F&rft.aulast=Purtill&rft.aufirst=Corinne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fculture%2Fannals-of-inquiry%2Fhow-close-is-humanity-to-the-edge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-32" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.metaculus.com/questions/578/human-extinction-by-2100" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Will humans become extinct by 2100?"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaculus" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Metaculus">Metaculus</a></i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">January 10,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phys.org&rft.atitle=Humans+will+be+extinct+in+100+years+says+eminent+scientist&rft.date=2010-06-23&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2010-06-humans-extinct-years-eminent-scientist.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-34" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFNafeez" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Nafeez, Ahmed. <a class="external text" href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/akzn5a/theoretical-physicists-say-90-chance-of-societal-collapse-within-several-decades" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Theoretical Physicists Say 90% Chance of Societal Collapse Within Several Decades"</a>. <i>Vice</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 2,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vice&rft.atitle=Theoretical+Physicists+Say+90%25+Chance+of+Societal+Collapse+Within+Several+Decades&rft.aulast=Nafeez&rft.aufirst=Ahmed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fen_us%2Farticle%2Fakzn5a%2Ftheoretical-physicists-say-90-chance-of-societal-collapse-within-several-decades&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-35" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBolognaAquino2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bologna, M.; Aquino, G. (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7203172" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Deforestation and world population sustainability: a quantitative analysis"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>10</b> (7631): 7631. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2006.12202" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2006.12202</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatSR..10.7631B" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2020NatSR..10.7631B</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-63657-6" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41598-020-63657-6</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7203172" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7203172</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32376879" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">32376879</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Deforestation+and+world+population+sustainability%3A+a+quantitative+analysis&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=7631&rft.pages=7631&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7203172%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatSR..10.7631B&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2006.12202&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32376879&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-020-63657-6&rft.aulast=Bologna&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Aquino%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7203172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Bostrom_2002-36" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Bostrom_2002_36-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cs2" id="CITEREFBostrom2002" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bostrom, Nick (2002), "Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards", <i>Journal of Evolution and Technology</i>, vol. 9, <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">My subjective opinion is that setting this probability lower than 25% would be misguided, and the best estimate may be considerably higher.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Evolution+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Existential+Risks%3A+Analyzing+Human+Extinction+Scenarios+and+Related+Hazards&rft.volume=9&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Bostrom&rft.aufirst=Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-37" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWhitmire2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Whitmire, Daniel P. (August 3, 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1473550417000271" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Implication of our technological species being first and early"</a>. <i>International Journal of Astrobiology</i>. <b>18</b> (2): 183–188. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1473550417000271" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1017/S1473550417000271</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Astrobiology&rft.atitle=Implication+of+our+technological+species+being+first+and+early&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=183-188&rft.date=2017-08-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1473550417000271&rft.aulast=Whitmire&rft.aufirst=Daniel+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1473550417000271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie1996139-38" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeslie1996139_38-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFLeslie1996" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Leslie 1996</a>, p. 139.</span></li><li id="cite_note-Salotti-39" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Salotti_39-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Salotti_39-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSalotti2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Salotti, Jean-Marc (April 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.futures.2022.102933" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Human extinction by asteroid impact"</a>. <i>Futures</i>. <b>138</b>: 102933. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.futures.2022.102933" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.futures.2022.102933</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247718308" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">247718308</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Futures&rft.atitle=Human+extinction+by+asteroid+impact&rft.volume=138&rft.pages=102933&rft.date=2022-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.futures.2022.102933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247718308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Salotti&rft.aufirst=Jean-Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.futures.2022.102933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-40" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Practical application" page 39 of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> paper: <a class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~jknobe/physics.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Philosophical Implications of Inflationary Cosmology</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050512134626/http://www.princeton.edu/~jknobe/physics.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> May 12, 2005, at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span></li><li id="cite_note-wells-41" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-wells_41-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFWells2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wells, Willard. (2009). <i>Apocalypse when?</i>. Praxis. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0387098364" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0387098364"><bdi>978-0387098364</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apocalypse+when%3F&rft.pub=Praxis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0387098364&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Willard.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-42" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-42" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFTonnMacGregor2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Tonn, Bruce; MacGregor, Donald (2009). "A singular chain of events". <i>Futures</i>. <b>41</b> (10): 706–714. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.futures.2009.07.009" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.futures.2009.07.009</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144553194" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">144553194</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1775342" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1775342</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Futures&rft.atitle=A+singular+chain+of+events&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=706-714&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144553194%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1775342%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.futures.2009.07.009&rft.aulast=Tonn&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=MacGregor%2C+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Parfit_1984-43" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Parfit_1984_43-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Parfit_1984_43-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFParfit1984" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Parfit, Derek (1984). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Reasons and Persons"><i>Reasons and Persons</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 453–454.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reasons+and+Persons&rft.pages=453-454&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Parfit&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-44" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-44" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFMacAskillYetter_Chappell2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_MacAskill" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="William MacAskill">MacAskill, William</a>; Yetter Chappell, Richard (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.utilitarianism.net/population-ethics" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Population Ethics | Practical Implications of Population Ethical Theories"</a>. <i>Introduction to Utilitarianism</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 12,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Introduction+to+Utilitarianism&rft.atitle=Population+Ethics+%7C+Practical+Implications+of+Population+Ethical+Theories&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=MacAskill&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Yetter+Chappell%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.utilitarianism.net%2Fpopulation-ethics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-waste-45" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-waste_45-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBostrom2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bostrom, Nick (2009). <a class="external text" href="http://www.nickbostrom.com/astronomical/waste.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Astronomical Waste: The opportunity cost of delayed technological development"</a>. <i>Utilitas</i>. <b>15</b> (3): 308–314. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.429.2849" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1.1.429.2849</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0953820800004076" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1017/s0953820800004076</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15860897" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">15860897</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Utilitas&rft.atitle=Astronomical+Waste%3A+The+opportunity+cost+of+delayed+technological+development&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=308-314&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.429.2849%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15860897%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0953820800004076&rft.aulast=Bostrom&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nickbostrom.com%2Fastronomical%2Fwaste.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-46" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFTodd2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Todd, Benjamin (2017). <a class="external text" href="https://80000hours.org/articles/existential-risks/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The case for reducing existential risks"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/80,000_Hours" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="80,000 Hours">80,000 Hours</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">January 8,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=80%2C000+Hours&rft.atitle=The+case+for+reducing+existential+risks&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F80000hours.org%2Farticles%2Fexistential-risks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-47" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSagan1983" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sagan, Carl (1983). <a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246982634" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Nuclear war and climatic catastrophe: Some policy implications"</a>. <i>Foreign Affairs</i>. <b>62</b> (2): 257–292. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20041818" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.2307/20041818</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20041818" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20041818</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151058846" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">151058846</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Nuclear+war+and+climatic+catastrophe%3A+Some+policy+implications&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=257-292&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151058846%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20041818%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20041818&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F246982634&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-48" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAdams1989" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Adams, Robert Merrihew (October 1989). "Should Ethics be More Impersonal? a Critical Notice of Derek Parfit, Reasons and Persons". <i>The Philosophical Review</i>. <b>98</b> (4): 439–484. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2185115" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.2307/2185115</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2185115" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2185115</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophical+Review&rft.atitle=Should+Ethics+be+More+Impersonal%3F+a+Critical+Notice+of+Derek+Parfit%2C+Reasons+and+Persons&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=439-484&rft.date=1989-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2185115&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2185115%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Robert+Merrihew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom201323–24-49" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom201323%E2%80%9324_49-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostrom2013" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom 2013</a>, pp. 23–24.</span></li><li id="cite_note-parfit-50" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-parfit_50-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parfit, D. 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">21730172</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economics+%26+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Discounting+for+Public+Policy%3A+A+Survey&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=391-439&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21730172%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0266-2671&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0266267117000062&rft.aulast=Greaves&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Feconomics-and-philosophy%2Farticle%2Fdiscounting-for-public-policy-a-survey%2F4CDDF711BF8782F262693F4549B5812E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-53" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-53" style="background: none; 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/phc3.12442</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1747-9991" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1747-9991</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+Compass&rft.atitle=Population+axiology&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e12442&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fphc3.12442&rft.issn=1747-9991&rft.aulast=Greaves&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fphc3.12442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-54" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-54" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFLewis2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lewis, Gregory (May 23, 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://gregoryjlewis.com/2018/05/23/the-person-affecting-value-of-existential-risk-reduction/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The person-affecting value of existential risk reduction"</a>. <i>www.gregoryjlewis.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 7,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gregoryjlewis.com&rft.atitle=The+person-affecting+value+of+existential+risk+reduction&rft.date=2018-05-23&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgregoryjlewis.com%2F2018%2F05%2F23%2Fthe-person-affecting-value-of-existential-risk-reduction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Sagan_1983-55" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Sagan_1983_55-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation magazine cs1" id="CITEREFSagan1983" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sagan, Carl (Winter 1983). <a class="external text" href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1983-12-01/nuclear-war-and-climatic-catastrophe-some-policy-implications" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Nuclear War and Climatic Catastrophe: Some Policy Implications"</a>. <i>Foreign Affairs</i>. Council on Foreign Relations. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20041818" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.2307/20041818</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20041818" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20041818</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">August 4,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Nuclear+War+and+Climatic+Catastrophe%3A+Some+Policy+Implications&rft.ssn=winter&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20041818&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20041818%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2F1983-12-01%2Fnuclear-war-and-climatic-catastrophe-some-policy-implications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-56" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-56" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBurke1999" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Burke, Edmund (1999) [1790]. <a class="external text" href="http://oll-resources.s3.amazonaws.com/titles/656/0005-02_SM.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Reflections on the Revolution in France"</a><span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. In Canavan, Francis (ed.). <i>Select Works of Edmund Burke Volume 2</i>. Liberty Fund. p. 192.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France&rft.btitle=Select+Works+of+Edmund+Burke+Volume+2&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll-resources.s3.amazonaws.com%2Ftitles%2F656%2F0005-02_SM.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-weitzman1-57" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-weitzman1_57-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWeitzman2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Weitzman, Martin (2009). <a class="external text" href="http://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3693423/Weitzman_OnModeling.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"On modeling and interpreting the economics of catastrophic climate change"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Review of Economics and Statistics</i>. <b>91</b> (1): 1–19. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Frest.91.1.1" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1162/rest.91.1.1</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216093786" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">216093786</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Economics+and+Statistics&rft.atitle=On+modeling+and+interpreting+the+economics+of+catastrophic+climate+change&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-19&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Frest.91.1.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216093786%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Weitzman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F3693423%2FWeitzman_OnModeling.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-58" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-58" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFPosner2004" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Posner, Richard (2004). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophe:_Risk_and_Response" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Catastrophe: Risk and Response"><i>Catastrophe: Risk and Response</i></a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catastrophe%3A+Risk+and+Response&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Posner&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-59" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBenatar2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Benatar" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="David Benatar">Benatar, David</a> (2008). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/betternevertohav0000bena/page/28" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Better Never to Have Been: The Harm of Coming into Existence</i></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/betternevertohav0000bena/page/28" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">28</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199549269" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199549269"><bdi>978-0199549269</bdi></a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Being brought into existence is not a benefit but always a harm.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Better+Never+to+Have+Been%3A+The+Harm+of+Coming+into+Existence&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0199549269&rft.aulast=Benatar&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbetternevertohav0000bena%2Fpage%2F28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-60" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-60" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBenatar2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Benatar" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="David Benatar">Benatar, David</a> (2008). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/betternevertohav0000bena/page/224" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Better Never to Have Been: The Harm of Coming into Existence</i></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/betternevertohav0000bena/page/224" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">224</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199549269" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199549269"><bdi>978-0199549269</bdi></a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Although there are many non-human species - especially carnivores - that also cause a lot of suffering, humans have the unfortunate distinction of being the most destructive and harmful species on earth. The amount of suffering in the world could be radically reduced if there were no more humans.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Better+Never+to+Have+Been%3A+The+Harm+of+Coming+into+Existence&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0199549269&rft.aulast=Benatar&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbetternevertohav0000bena%2Fpage%2F224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-61" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBest2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Best" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Steven Best">Best, Steven</a> (2014). "Conclusion: Reflections on Activism and Hope in a Dying World and Suicidal Culture". <i>The Politics of Total Liberation: Revolution for the 21st Century</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. p. 165. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137440723_7" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1057/9781137440723_7</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1137471116" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1137471116"><bdi>978-1137471116</bdi></a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">In an era of catastrophe and crisis, the continuation of the human species in a viable or desirable form, is obviously contingent and <i>not a given or necessary good</i>. But considered from <i>the standpoint of animals and the earth</i>, the demise of humanity would be the best imaginable event possible, and the sooner the better. The extinction of Homo sapiens would remove the malignancy ravaging the planet, destroy a parasite consuming its host, shut down the killing machines, and allow the earth to regenerate while permitting new species to evolve.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conclusion%3A+Reflections+on+Activism+and+Hope+in+a+Dying+World+and+Suicidal+Culture&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Total+Liberation%3A+Revolution+for+the+21st+Century&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781137440723_7&rft.isbn=978-1137471116&rft.aulast=Best&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-62" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-62" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMay2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_May" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Todd May">May, Todd</a> (December 17, 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/17/opinion/human-extinction-climate-change.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Would Human Extinction Be a Tragedy?"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Human beings are destroying large parts of the inhabitable earth and causing unimaginable suffering to many of the animals that inhabit it. This is happening through at least three means. First, human contribution to climate change is devastating ecosystems . . . Second, the increasing human population is encroaching on ecosystems that would otherwise be intact. Third, factory farming fosters the creation of millions upon millions of animals for whom it offers nothing but suffering and misery before slaughtering them in often barbaric ways. There is no reason to think that those practices are going to diminish any time soon. Quite the opposite.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Would+Human+Extinction+Be+a+Tragedy%3F&rft.date=2018-12-17&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F12%2F17%2Fopinion%2Fhuman-extinction-climate-change.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-63" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFMacCormack2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_MacCormack" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Patricia MacCormack">MacCormack, Patricia</a> (2020). <i>The Ahuman Manifesto: Activism for the End of the Anthropocene</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Academic</a>. pp. 143, 166. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1350081093" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1350081093"><bdi>978-1350081093</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ahuman+Manifesto%3A+Activism+for+the+End+of+the+Anthropocene&rft.pages=143%2C+166&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1350081093&rft.aulast=MacCormack&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Wagar-64" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-Wagar_64-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWagar2003" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wagar, W. Warren (2003). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20718566" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Review of The Last Man, Jean-Baptiste François Xavier Cousin de Grainville"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopian_Studies" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Utopian Studies">Utopian Studies</a></i>. <b>14</b> (1): 178–180. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1045-991X" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1045-991X</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20718566" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20718566</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Utopian+Studies&rft.atitle=Review+of+The+Last+Man%2C+Jean-Baptiste+Fran%C3%A7ois+Xavier+Cousin+de+Grainville&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=178-180&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20718566%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1045-991X&rft.aulast=Wagar&rft.aufirst=W.+Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20718566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-65" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-65" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://archive.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2007/08/18/he_imagines_a_world_without_people_but_why/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"He imagines a world without people. But why?"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boston_Globe" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Boston Globe">The Boston Globe</a></i>. August 18, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 20,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=He+imagines+a+world+without+people.+But+why%3F&rft.date=2007-08-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fglobe%2Fliving%2Farticles%2F2007%2F08%2F18%2Fhe_imagines_a_world_without_people_but_why%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-66" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-66" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFTucker2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Tucker, Neely (March 8, 2008). <a class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/07/AR2008030703256.html?hpid=artslot" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Depopulation Boom"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 20,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Depopulation+Boom&rft.date=2008-03-08&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Neely&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2008%2F03%2F07%2FAR2008030703256.html%3Fhpid%3Dartslot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-67" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-67" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBarcella2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Barcella, Laura (2012). <i>The end: 50 apocalyptic visions from pop culture that you should know about -- before it's too late</i>. San Francisco, CA: Zest Books. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0982732250" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0982732250"><bdi>978-0982732250</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+end%3A+50+apocalyptic+visions+from+pop+culture+that+you+should+know+about+--+before+it%27s+too+late&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+CA&rft.pub=Zest+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0982732250&rft.aulast=Barcella&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-68" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#cite_ref-68" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFDinello2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dinello, Daniel (2005). <i>Technophobia!: science fiction visions of posthuman technology</i> (1st ed.). Austin: University of Texas press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70986-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70986-7"><bdi>978-0-292-70986-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technophobia%21%3A+science+fiction+visions+of+posthuman+technology&rft.place=Austin&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70986-7&rft.aulast=Dinello&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></span></li></ol></div></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="refbegin" style="font-size: 12.6px; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBostrom2002" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nick Bostrom">Bostrom, Nick</a> (2002). <a class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:827452c3-fcba-41b8-86b0-407293e6617c" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Existential risks: analyzing human extinction scenarios and related hazards"</a>. <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Evolution_and_Technology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Journal of Evolution and Technology">Journal of Evolution and Technology</a></i>. <b>9</b>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1541-0099" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1541-0099</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Evolution+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Existential+risks%3A+analyzing+human+extinction+scenarios+and+related+hazards&rft.volume=9&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=1541-0099&rft.aulast=Bostrom&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3A827452c3-fcba-41b8-86b0-407293e6617c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nick Bostrom">Bostrom, Nick</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_M._%C4%86irkovi%C4%87" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Milan M. Ćirković">Cirkovic, Milan M.</a> (September 29, 2011) [Orig. July 3, 2008]. <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTkfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"1: Introduction"</a>. In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nick Bostrom">Bostrom, Nick</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_M._%C4%86irkovi%C4%87" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Milan M. Ćirković">Cirkovic, Milan M.</a> (eds.). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTkfAQAAQBAJ" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Global Catastrophic Risks</i></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 1–30. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199606504" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/9780199606504"><bdi>9780199606504</bdi></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/740989645" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">740989645</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+Introduction&rft.btitle=Global+Catastrophic+Risks&rft.pages=1-30&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011-09-29&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F740989645&rft.isbn=9780199606504&rft.aulast=Bostrom&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft.au=Cirkovic%2C+Milan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsTkfAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFRampino2011"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_R._Rampino" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Michael R. Rampino">Rampino, Michael R.</a> "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA205" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10: Super-volcanism and other geophysical processes of catastrophic import</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 205–221.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFNapier2011"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Napier_(astronomer)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="William Napier (astronomer)">Napier, William</a>. "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA222" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">11: Hazards from comets and asteroids</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 222–237.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFDar2011">Dar, Arnon. "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA238" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">12: Influence of Supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, solar flares, and cosmic rays on the terrestrial environment</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 238–262.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFFrameAllen2011">Frame, David; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myles_Allen" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Myles Allen">Allen, Myles R.</a> "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA265" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">13: Climate change and global risk</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 265–286.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFKilbourne2011"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_D._Kilbourne" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Edwin D. Kilbourne">Kilbourne, Edwin Dennis</a>. "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA287" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">14: Plagues and pandemics: past, present, and future</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 287–304.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFYudkowsky2011"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliezer_Yudkowsky" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eliezer Yudkowsky">Yudkowsky, Eliezer</a>. "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA308" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">15: Artificial Intelligence as a positive and negative factor in global risk</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 308–345.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFWilczek2011"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek, Frank</a>. "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA346" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">16: Big troubles, imagined and real</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 346–362.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFCirincione2011"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Cirincione" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Joseph Cirincione">Cirincione, Joseph</a>. "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA381" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">18: The continuing threat of nuclear war</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 381–401.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFAckermanPotter2011"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Ackerman" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gary Ackerman">Ackerman, Gary</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_C._Potter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="William C. Potter">Potter, William C.</a> "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA402" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">19: Catastrophic nuclear terrorism: a preventable peril</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 402–449.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFNouriChyba2011">Nouri, Ali; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Chyba" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Christopher Chyba">Chyba, Christopher F.</a> "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA450" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20: Biotechnology and biosecurity</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 450–480.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation" id="CITEREFPhoenixTreder2011"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Phoenix_(nanotechnologist)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chris Phoenix (nanotechnologist)">Phoenix, Chris</a>; Treder, Mike. "<a class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Catastrophic_Risks/sTkfAQAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA481" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">21: Nanotechnology as global catastrophic risk</a>". In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction#CITEREFBostromCirkovic2011" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">Bostrom & Cirkovic (2011)</a>, pp. 481–503.</span></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBostrom2013" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nick Bostrom">Bostrom, Nick</a> (2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.existential-risk.org/concept.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Existential Risk Prevention as Global Priority"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Policy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global Policy">Global Policy</a></i>. <b>4</b> (1): 15–31. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1758-5899.12002" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1111/1758-5899.12002</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1758-5899" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1758-5899</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Policy&rft.atitle=Existential+Risk+Prevention+as+Global+Priority&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15-31&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1758-5899.12002&rft.issn=1758-5899&rft.aulast=Bostrom&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.existential-risk.org%2Fconcept.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span> [ <a class="external text" href="http://www.existential-risk.org/concept.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">PDF</a> ]</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFLeslie1996" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_A._Leslie" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="John A. Leslie">Leslie, John</a> (1996). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gUXgpH6nizIC" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>The End of the World: The Science and Ethics of Human Extinction</i></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415140430" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415140430"><bdi>978-0415140430</bdi></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1158823437" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1158823437</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+World%3A+The+Science+and+Ethics+of+Human+Extinction&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1158823437&rft.isbn=978-0415140430&rft.aulast=Leslie&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgUXgpH6nizIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFPosner2004" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Posner" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Richard Posner">Posner, Richard A.</a> (November 11, 2004). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SDe59lXSrY8C" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Catastrophe: Risk and Response</i></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534639-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534639-8"><bdi>978-0-19-534639-8</bdi></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/224729961" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">224729961</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catastrophe%3A+Risk+and+Response&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004-11-11&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F224729961&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534639-8&rft.aulast=Posner&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSDe59lXSrY8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFRees2003" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Rees" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Martin Rees">Rees, Martin J.</a> (March 19, 2003). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GqvgCDPFZ18C" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Our Final Hour: A Scientist's Warning : how Terror, Error, and Environmental Disaster Threaten Humankind's Future in this Century--on Earth and Beyond</i></a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Books" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06862-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06862-3"><bdi>978-0-465-06862-3</bdi></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51315429" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">51315429</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Final+Hour%3A+A+Scientist%27s+Warning+%3A+how+Terror%2C+Error%2C+and+Environmental+Disaster+Threaten+Humankind%27s+Future+in+this+Century--on+Earth+and+Beyond&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2003-03-19&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51315429&rft.isbn=978-0-465-06862-3&rft.aulast=Rees&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGqvgCDPFZ18C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li></ul></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_extinction&action=edit&section=18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="refbegin" style="font-size: 12.6px; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFBoulter2005" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Boulter" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Michael Boulter">Boulter, Michael</a> (2005). <i>Extinction: Evolution and the End of Man</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231128377" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231128377"><bdi>978-0231128377</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extinction%3A+Evolution+and+the+End+of+Man&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0231128377&rft.aulast=Boulter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Holt_(philosopher)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jim Holt (philosopher)">Holt, Jim</a>, "The Power of Catastrophic Thinking" (review of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toby_Ord" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a>, <i>The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity</i>, Hachette, 2020, 468 pp.), <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>, vol. LXVIII, no. 3 (February 25, 2021), pp. 26–29. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Holt_(philosopher)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jim Holt (philosopher)">Jim Holt</a> writes (p. 28): "Whether you are searching for a cure for cancer, or pursuing a scholarly or artistic career, or engaged in establishing more just institutions, a threat to the future of humanity is also a threat to the significance of what you do."</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMacCormack2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_MacCormack" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Patricia MacCormack">MacCormack, Patricia</a> (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://arro.anglia.ac.uk/id/eprint/705303/3/MacCormack_2020.docx" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Embracing Death, Opening the World"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Feminist_Studies" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Australian Feminist Studies">Australian Feminist Studies</a></i>. <b>35</b> (104): 101–115. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08164649.2020.1791689" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1080/08164649.2020.1791689</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221790005" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">221790005</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Feminist+Studies&rft.atitle=Embracing+Death%2C+Opening+the+World&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=104&rft.pages=101-115&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08164649.2020.1791689&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221790005%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=MacCormack&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farro.anglia.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F705303%2F3%2FMacCormack_2020.docx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFMichael_Moyer2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Michael Moyer (September 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=eternal-fascinations" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Eternal Fascinations with the End: Why We're Suckers for Stories of Our Own Demise: Our pattern-seeking brains and desire to be special help explain our fears of the apocalypse"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Eternal+Fascinations+with+the+End%3A+Why+We%27re+Suckers+for+Stories+of+Our+Own+Demise%3A+Our+pattern-seeking+brains+and+desire+to+be+special+help+explain+our+fears+of+the+apocalypse&rft.date=2010-09&rft.au=Michael+Moyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Deternal-fascinations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSchubertCaviolaFaber2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Schubert, Stefan; Caviola, Lucius; Faber, Nadira S. (2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6803761" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Psychology of Existential Risk: Moral Judgments about Human Extinction"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Reports" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scientific Reports">Scientific Reports</a></i>. <b>9</b> (1): 15100. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-50145-9" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41598-019-50145-9</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6803761" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">6803761</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31636277" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">31636277</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=The+Psychology+of+Existential+Risk%3A+Moral+Judgments+about+Human+Extinction&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15100&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6803761%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31636277&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-019-50145-9&rft.aulast=Schubert&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Caviola%2C+Lucius&rft.au=Faber%2C+Nadira+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6803761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+extinction"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toby_Ord" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Toby Ord">Ord, Toby</a> (2020). <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Precipice:_Existential_Risk_and_the_Future_of_Humanity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity">The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity</a>.</i> Bloomsbury Publishing. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1526600218" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/1526600218">1526600218</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Torres, Phil. (2017). <i>Morality, Foresight, and Human Flourishing: An Introduction to Existential Risks</i>. Pitchstone Publishing. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1634311427" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1634311427">978-1634311427</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Weber" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Michel Weber">Michel Weber</a>, "Book Review: <i>Walking Away from Empire</i>", <i>Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy</i>, vol. 10, no. 2, 2014, pp. 329–336.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/earth-without-people.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">What would happen to Earth if humans went extinct?</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_Science" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Live Science">Live Science</a>, August 16, 2020.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2023/05/31/ai-poses-human-extinction-risk-sam-altman-and-other-tech-leaders-warn.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">A.I. poses human extinction risk on par with nuclear war, Sam Altman and other tech leaders warn</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNBC" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="CNBC">CNBC</a>. May 31, 2023.</li></ul></div><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div aria-labelledby="Global_catastrophic_risks" class="navbox" role="navigation" style="background-color: #fdfdfd; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; font-size: 12.32px; margin: 1em auto 0px; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 960px;"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="background: transparent; border-spacing: 0px; font-size: 12.32px; width: 952px;"><tbody><tr><th class="navbox-title" colspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #ccccff; line-height: 1.5em; padding: 0.25em 1em; text-align: center;"><button aria-expanded="false" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" style="appearance: none; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; 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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of th</li></ul></footer></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-39954361902558052812023-05-02T07:12:00.002-07:002023-05-02T07:12:24.962-07:00Quantitative easing did not cause inflation: now shall we move on from all claims that it did? by Richard Murphy<p> <span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px;">Ben Broadbent,</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px;"> </span><a href="https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/-/media/boe/files/speech/2023/april/monetary-policy-prices-versus-quantities-speech-by-ben-broadbent.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" role="link" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #b21010; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank">deputy governor of the Bank of England,</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px;">gave a speech this week in which I agreed with some (but by no means all) of what he said.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">His argument was summarised in this statement:</p><blockquote style="background-color: white; border-left: 5px solid rgb(238, 238, 238); box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17.5px; margin: 0px 0px 20px; padding: 10px 20px;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1em; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px;">Certainly the very strongest claims – that QE inevitably leads to rapid growth of commercial bank deposits (M4), on a par with that in the <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/C/#central-bank" role="link" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">central bank</a>'s balance sheet; and that this, in turn, inevitably leads to excessive <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/I/#inflation" role="link" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">inflation</a> – are not well supported by the evidence. Broad <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/M/#money" role="link" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">money</a> grew more than twice as rapidly in the first fifteen years of inflation targeting (when there was no QE) than in the decade or so after the financial crisis (when there was lots). And average inflation, in both periods, was close to 2%.</p></blockquote><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">In effect, the argument he made was that the creation of new money by the <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/B/#bank-of-england" role="link" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">Bank of England</a> under cover of the <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/Q/#quantitative-easing" role="link" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">quantitative easing</a> process, did not result in inflation.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">He developed this thesis using several charts:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-69536" height="408" sizes="(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px" src="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0988-550x408.jpeg" srcset="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0988-550x408.jpeg 550w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0988-404x300.jpeg 404w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0988-768x570.jpeg 768w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0988-1536x1140.jpeg 1536w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0988-539x400.jpeg 539w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0988.jpeg 1860w" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; max-width: 95%; vertical-align: middle;" width="550" /></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">The argument made, based on this chart, is that the growth in central bank, base, narrow or reserve account money (they are, effectively, all the same thing, with all of it being constrained within the Bank of England inter-bank settlement cycle through the <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/C/#central-bank-reserve-accounts" role="link" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">central bank reserve accounts</a>) is not related to the growth in commercial bank or broad money, which is what is actually used in the economy in which we all operate. It's a notable and appropriate suggestion.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">Broadbent reinforced the claim by suggesting that the global financial crisis changed the pattern of <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/M/#money-creation" role="link" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">money creation</a>, but doing so did not result in inflation:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-69537" height="373" sizes="(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px" src="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0989-550x373.jpeg" srcset="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0989-550x373.jpeg 550w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0989-442x300.jpeg 442w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0989-768x521.jpeg 768w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0989-1536x1042.jpeg 1536w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0989-589x400.jpeg 589w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0989.jpeg 1836w" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; max-width: 95%; vertical-align: middle;" width="550" /></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">The point he then noted was that the impact of Covid was that some in society did save using broad or commercial bank-created money:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-69538" height="391" sizes="(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px" src="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0990-550x391.jpeg" srcset="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0990-550x391.jpeg 550w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0990-422x300.jpeg 422w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0990-768x546.jpeg 768w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0990-1536x1092.jpeg 1536w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0990-562x400.jpeg 562w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0990.jpeg 1849w" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; max-width: 95%; vertical-align: middle;" width="550" /></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">What the Bank then expected was that people would then spend that pent-up money. This is what those who claim the QE created inflation also suggest. However, as Broadbent notes, that tendency to spend was much smaller than expected:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-69539" height="399" sizes="(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px" src="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0991-550x399.jpeg" srcset="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0991-550x399.jpeg 550w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0991-413x300.jpeg 413w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0991-768x558.jpeg 768w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0991-1536x1115.jpeg 1536w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0991-551x400.jpeg 551w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0991.jpeg 1880w" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; max-width: 95%; vertical-align: middle;" width="550" /></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">Broadbent then used a New Keynesian, and so deeply neoclassical, explanation for what did happen in the macroeconomy. From this he concluded that, firstly, it was external shocks that created this inflation and, secondly, like Huw Pill, he thinks we must accept that we are worse off as a result. I do not agree with the reasons he gave, but what I do agree with is his conclusion that central bank money creation, let alone broad money creation, is not closely (if very much at all) linked to inflation. His Chart 12 provided support:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-69540" height="371" sizes="(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px" src="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0992-550x371.jpeg" srcset="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0992-550x371.jpeg 550w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0992-444x300.jpeg 444w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0992-768x519.jpeg 768w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0992-1536x1037.jpeg 1536w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0992-592x400.jpeg 592w, https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/IMG_0992.jpeg 1872w" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; max-width: 95%; vertical-align: middle;" width="550" /></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;"><a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/M/#money" role="link" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">Money</a> supply growth was high. <a class="glossary" href="https://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/glossary/I/#inflation" role="link" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: rgb(128, 0, 32) !important; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.35s ease 0s;" target="_blank" title="Defined in glossary">Inflation</a> was not. At the very least, the velocity of circulation of money dropped dramatically. The obvious explanation for that is growing inequality. He did not say so.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px 0px 20px;">Where I do agree with Ben Broadbent is that there is no obvious evidence that QE did in any way result in inflation. I think it is time to dismiss that argument.</p><div class="wpulike wpulike-heart " style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 10px 0px; position: relative;"><div class="wp_ulike_general_class wp_ulike_is_not_liked" style="align-items: center; border-radius: 0.25em; box-shadow: rgb(189, 189, 189) 0px 0px 0px 1px inset; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-flex; padding: 5px;"><button aria-label="Like Button" class="wp_ulike_btn wp_ulike_put_image wp_post_btn_69534" data-ulike-display-likers="" data-ulike-id="69534" data-ulike-likers-style="popover" data-ulike-nonce="8e6e55eb65" data-ulike-template="wpulike-heart" data-ulike-type="post" style="appearance: button; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0px 0px; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-radius: 0.25em; border-style: none; border-width: initial; box-shadow: none; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 15px; position: relative; transition: none 0s ease 0s; vertical-align: middle;" type="button"></button><span class="count-box wp_ulike_counter_up" data-ulike-counter-value="+34" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #616161; display: inline-block; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600; line-height: 28px; padding: 0px 5px; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">+34</span><div><br /></div></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-46627722573250787862023-04-15T04:14:00.000-07:002023-04-15T04:14:17.011-07:00Climate change: Fossil fuel emissions from electricity set to fall - report<p> <span style="background-color: white; color: #141414; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1.125rem; font-style: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-weight: 700;">By Matt McGrath</span></p><div class="ssrcss-1bdte2-BylineComponentWrapper e8mq1e90" data-component="byline-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1.5rem auto; max-width: 50rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-qt5zqv-BylineWrapper e8mq1e917" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-h3c0s8-ContributorContainer e8mq1e916" style="align-items: flex-end; border: 0px; color: #545658; display: grid; font: inherit; gap: 1rem 0.5rem; grid-template-columns: 1fr; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-1u2in0b-Container-ContributorDetails e8mq1e913" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; grid-column: 1 / 3; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-84ltp5-Text e8mq1e910" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8125rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.23077; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Environment correspondent BBC/ April 11th 2023</div></div></div></div><div class="ssrcss-jlwt2c-Divider e8mq1e915" style="background-color: #8a8c8e; border: 0px; font: inherit; height: 0.125rem; margin: 1rem 0px 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 2.5rem;"></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><b class="ssrcss-hmf8ql-BoldText e5tfeyi3" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The world will likely use fewer fossil fuels to produce electricity this year in a "turning point" for planet-friendly energy, a new report says.</b></p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">It would be the first ever annual drop in the use of coal, oil and gas to generate electricity, outside of a global recession or pandemic.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">As a result, fewer warming gases would be released during energy production.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The authors attribute the expected change to a boom in renewable energy led mainly by China.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Wind and solar now produce 12% of global electricity with enough wind turbines added in 2022 to power almost all of the UK.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Renewables are set to meet all growth in demand this year, <a class="ssrcss-k17ofw-InlineLink e1no5rhv0" href="https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/global-electricity-review-2023" style="border-bottom: none; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(138, 140, 142); text-decoration-skip-ink: none; text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline;">the study from energy analysts Ember says</a>.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="unordered-list-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-1o5f7ft-BulletListContainer e5tfeyi0" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.5rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><ul role="list" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><li style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="ssrcss-k17ofw-InlineLink e1no5rhv0" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-65192825" style="border-bottom: none; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(138, 140, 142); text-decoration-skip-ink: none; text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline;">Norwegian seafloor holds clue to Antarctic melting</a></li><li style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="ssrcss-k17ofw-InlineLink e1no5rhv0" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-65166859" style="border-bottom: none; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(138, 140, 142); text-decoration-skip-ink: none; text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline;">Wet wipes ban planned to tackle water pollution</a></li><li style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="ssrcss-k17ofw-InlineLink e1no5rhv0" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-65097831" style="border-bottom: none; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(138, 140, 142); text-decoration-skip-ink: none; text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline;">World's top court to weigh in on climate change</a></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Making electricity is the single biggest contributor to global warming, responsible for over a third of energy-related carbon emissions in 2021.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">So phasing out coal, oil and gas in this sector is seen as critical in helping the world avoid dangerous levels of climate change.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">This new study looks at data from countries representing 93% of global electricity demand.</p><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-18mjolk-ComponentWrapper ep2nwvo1" data-component="image-block" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSans, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1.5rem 0px; max-width: 50rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><figure class="ssrcss-wpgbih-StyledFigure e34k3c23" style="border: 0px; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-ab5fd8-StyledFigureContainer e34k3c21" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="ssrcss-1hq4gmv-Placeholder e16icw910" style="border: 0px; display: block; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 450px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><source srcset="https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/240/cpsprodpb/BF6B/production/_129330094_gettyimages-1249134878.jpg.webp 240w, https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/320/cpsprodpb/BF6B/production/_129330094_gettyimages-1249134878.jpg.webp 320w, https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/480/cpsprodpb/BF6B/production/_129330094_gettyimages-1249134878.jpg.webp 480w, https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/624/cpsprodpb/BF6B/production/_129330094_gettyimages-1249134878.jpg.webp 624w, https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/800/cpsprodpb/BF6B/production/_129330094_gettyimages-1249134878.jpg.webp 800w, https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/976/cpsprodpb/BF6B/production/_129330094_gettyimages-1249134878.jpg.webp 976w" type="image/webp"></source><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">This, the fourth edition of Ember's Global Electricity Review, indicates that significant progress is now being made in reducing the role of fossil fuels in power production.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The major developments are the continuing rise of solar and wind as economically viable sources of electricity. Around the world, solar grew by 24% last year, enough to meet the annual demands of a country as big as South Africa.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Taken together with nuclear and hydropower, clean sources produced 39% of global electricity in 2022. The report finds that electricity produced last year was, in effect, the cleanest ever made.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">But despite this, carbon emissions from the sector also continued to rise, as coal use edged up.</p><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">According to the report's authors this is because overall demand for electricity rose, and not all of it was met from clean sources.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">There were also problems with nuclear and hydro electricity in 2022, with many French reactors offline, and Europe's rivers too low in many places for hydro generation.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">However the report says that in 2023, the growth of wind and solar will be greater than the rise in demand - and this will start to turn the tide on warming gases.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">"When you stop adding more fossil fuels to generate your electricity, you start seeing a fall in emissions," said Malgorzata Wiatros-Motyka, the report's lead author.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">"This is extremely important in the context of rising electrification, as we have more electric vehicles, more heat pumps, so cleaning the power sector will drive emissions down in other sectors as well."</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">While the fall in fossil fuel emissions in electricity this year is expected to be small, around 0.3%, the authors believe the drop will continue and accelerate in subsequent years. Key to this is a fall off in the use of gas, which fell slightly last year according to the report, with some countries like Brazil seeing a surge in hydro power which reduced their use of gas by 46% in 2022.</p><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-18mjolk-ComponentWrapper ep2nwvo1" data-component="image-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1.5rem 0px; max-width: 50rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><figure class="ssrcss-wpgbih-StyledFigure e34k3c23" style="border: 0px; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-ab5fd8-StyledFigureContainer e34k3c21" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="ssrcss-1hq4gmv-Placeholder e16icw910" style="border: 0px; display: block; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 450px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">"We now have reached this next turning point of starting to see a new era of falling fossil fuel power sector emissions. We know that wind and solar are the answer and we've just got to get on with a roadmap for building them as quickly as possible," said Dave Jones, from Ember, one of the report's authors.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">One significant player impacting the overall trend is China. Around 50% of the global addition of wind power came from China and about 40% of the world's new solar came from from the country that's also the world's biggest use of coal power.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">"There is a chance that at the rate that China is building wind and solar and all types of clean generation, that they achieve that peak in coal generation earlier than 2025, which would be significant," said Mr Jones.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Energy experts acknowledge that curbing fossil fuels in power generation could well be a "turning point", but much more remains to be done.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">"The earliest peak of coal power generation was in the UK in 1979," said Prof Jessica Jewell from the University of Bergen, who was not involved with the study.</p></div></div><div class="ssrcss-11r1m41-RichTextComponentWrapper ep2nwvo0" data-component="text-block" style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 1rem 0px; max-width: 36.25rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="ssrcss-7uxr49-RichTextContainer e5tfeyi1" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p class="ssrcss-1q0x1qg-Paragraph eq5iqo00" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">"Nevertheless, it took decades to fully phase out coal power, for example the UK still used a bit of coal in 2022, 43 years past the peak. In order to reach clean energy goals we don't have 40 or even 30 years, we need to fully decarbonize electricity in a much shorter time."</p></div></div></span></div></figure></div></div></div></span></span></div></figure></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-71296437790250806232023-04-15T03:54:00.001-07:002023-04-15T03:54:47.872-07:00Keynes had No Formal Economics Degree - Is There a Lesson Here?<p> Like myself I do not hold a degree in economics....and probably just as well !! RS</p><h2 class="date-header" style="background-color: white; color: #999999; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10.14px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 0.2em; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 1.5em 0px 0.5em; text-transform: uppercase;">MONDAY, MARCH 5, 2012</h2><div><br /></div><div>Reference Source </div><div class="date-posts" style="background-color: white;"><div class="post-outer"><div class="post hentry uncustomized-post-template" itemprop="blogPost" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/BlogPosting" style="border-bottom: 1px dotted rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 0.5em 0px 1.5em; padding-bottom: 1.5em;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px;"><a name="4242036072325460474"></a></span></span><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0.25em 0px 0px; padding: 0px 0px 4px;"><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: 18.2px; font-weight: 400;">http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/</span></span></h3><div><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: 18.2px; font-weight: 400;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: 18.2px; font-weight: 400;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="post-header" style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px;"><div class="post-header-line-1"></div></div><div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-4242036072325460474" itemprop="description articleBody" style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 0.75em;">John Maynard Keynes was educated at King’s College, Cambridge from 1902–1906. In June 1905, he underwent the Tripos examinations, and was ranked in twelfth place. Keynes then spent another year at Cambridge through a King’s scholarship (Moggridge 1992: 82).<br /><br />By this time, Keynes’s interests turned to economics. He started to read economics in June 1905, with Alfred Marshall’s <i>Principles</i> as a textbook, though Keynes was soon reading Jevons’s <i>Theory of Political Economy</i>. He also began to spend time with the Marshallian economist Arthur C. Pigou, who was now a lecturer (Moggridge 1992: 82). By 12 October 1905, Keynes applied to attend Marshall’s lectures (Moggridge 1992: 95). By November 1905, Keynes had decided he was good at economics, and Marshall was even asking him to become a professional economist (Moggridge 1992: 96). By December 1905, however, Keynes decided to concentrate on preparations for the Civil Service Examination, and abandon the Economics Tripos (Skidelsky 1983: 166).<br /><br />Robert Skidelsky (1983: 166) actually points out a very interesting fact:<blockquote style="line-height: 1.3em; margin: 1em 20px;">“[sc. Keynes] … never did take an economics degree. In fact, his total professional training came to little more than eight weeks. All the rest was learnt on the job.”</blockquote>The greatest economist of the 20th century (at least in my opinion) had no formal economics degree. Are there lessons from this?<br /><br />Probably that truly great minds do not need formal university degrees to make contributions to the social or natural sciences.<br /><br />Of course, Keynes also had (1) a great deal of contact with the greatest British economists of his day, (2) much practical experience of government, having worked at the British India Office and Treasury, and (3) a great deal of time to read and reflect on issues that interested him, both as a fellow of King’s College and from 1909 a lecturer in economics (funded by no less than Alfred Marshall, who had a high opinion of Keynes).<br /><br />I would have liked to say that Keynes’s lack of a formal university degree in economics left his mind open to new ways of economic thinking, but, in the end, I am not really sure this is true. Keynes was imbued with the standard neoclassical theory of his day, mainly from Alfred Marshall. The story of his contribution to economic theory is the gradual emancipation of his mind from neoclassical thinking, which continued to the end of his life, and perhaps was never really complete.<br /><br />But that does not subtract from the importance of that achievement (for a excellent summary of his work, see Davidson 2009).<br /><br /><br /><b>BIBLIOGRAPHY</b><br /><br />Davidson, Paul. 2009. <i>John Maynard Keynes</i> (rev. edn.), Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke.<br /><br />Moggridge, D. E. 1992. <i>Maynard Keynes: An Economist’s Biography</i>, Routledge, London.<br /><br />Skidelsky, R. J. A. 1983. <i>John Maynard Keynes: Hopes Betrayed 1883–1920</i> (vol. 1), Macmillan, London.<div style="clear: both;"></div></div><div class="post-footer" style="color: #999999; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 10.14px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: 0.1em; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0.75em 0px; text-transform: uppercase;"><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-1"><span class="post-author vcard">POSTED BY <span class="fn" itemprop="author" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"><a class="g-profile" href="https://www.blogger.com/profile/06556863604205200159" rel="author" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="author profile"><span itemprop="name">LORD KEYNES</span> </a></span></span><span class="post-timestamp">AT <a class="timestamp-link" href="http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/2012/03/keynes-had-no-formal-economics-degree.html" rel="bookmark" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="permanent link"><abbr class="published" itemprop="datePublished" style="border: none;" title="2012-03-05T11:30:00-08:00">11:30 AM</abbr></a> </span><span class="post-comment-link"></span><span class="post-icons"></span><div class="post-share-buttons goog-inline-block" style="display: inline-block; margin-top: 0.5em; position: relative; vertical-align: middle;"></div></div><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-2"><span class="post-labels">LABELS: <a href="http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/search/label/economics%20degree" rel="tag" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">ECONOMICS DEGREE</a>, <a href="http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/search/label/Keynes" rel="tag" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">KEYNES</a></span></div><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-3"><span class="post-location"></span></div></div></div><div class="comments" id="comments" style="clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 10px;"><a name="comments"></a><h4 style="color: #999999; letter-spacing: 0.2em; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 1em 0px; text-transform: uppercase;">6 COMMENTS:</h4><div class="comments-content" style="margin-bottom: 16px;"><div id="comment-holder"><div class="comment-thread toplevel-thread" style="margin: 8px 0px;"><ol id="top-ra" style="list-style-type: none; padding: 0px;"><li class="comment" id="c4791677398764206644" style="margin-bottom: 16px; padding-bottom: 8px; padding-top: 16px;"><div class="avatar-image-container" style="float: left; max-height: 36px; overflow: hidden; width: 36px;"><img alt="" src="http://resources.blogblog.com/img/blank.gif" style="max-width: 36px;" /></div><div class="comment-block" style="margin-left: 48px; position: relative;"><div class="comment-header" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><cite class="user" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;"><a href="http://www.factsandotherstubbornthings.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Daniel Kuehn</a></cite><span class="icon user " style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span class="datetime secondary-text" style="margin-left: 6px;"><a href="http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/2012/03/keynes-had-no-formal-economics-degree.html?showComment=1330976283252#c4791677398764206644" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">March 5, 2012 at 11:38 AM</a></span></div><p class="comment-content" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px; text-align: justify;">Yep - this is why it was "Mr. Keynes and the Classics" and not "Dr. Keynes and the Classics".</p><span class="comment-actions secondary-text"><a class="comment-reply" data-comment-id="4791677398764206644" style="color: #0066cc; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;" target="_self">Reply</a></span></div><div class="comment-replies" style="margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 1em;"></div><div class="comment-replybox-single" id="c4791677398764206644-ce" style="margin-left: 48px; margin-top: 5px;"></div></li><li class="comment" id="c5861522701889582104" style="margin-bottom: 16px; padding-bottom: 8px;"><div class="avatar-image-container" style="float: left; max-height: 36px; overflow: hidden; width: 36px;"><img alt="" src="http://resources.blogblog.com/img/blank.gif" style="max-width: 36px;" /></div><div class="comment-block" style="margin-left: 48px; position: relative;"><div class="comment-header" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><cite class="user" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">Blue Aurora</cite><span class="icon user " style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span class="datetime secondary-text" style="margin-left: 6px;"><a href="http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/2012/03/keynes-had-no-formal-economics-degree.html?showComment=1330995114866#c5861522701889582104" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">March 5, 2012 at 4:51 PM</a></span></div><p class="comment-content" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px; text-align: justify;">Lord Keynes: Well, the fact that Keynes was trained as a mathematician and succssfully solved George Boole's Last Challenge Problem IS probably linked to his success as an economist. Dr. Michael Emmett Brady's been making the case for Keynes's mathematical prowess in this working paper below.<br /><br />http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1546726<br /><br />Also, Lord Keynes, do you remember Dr. Brady's review of Skidelsky's "Hopes Betrayed" on Amazon.com? You've covered it before, and could have cited it in this instance.</p><span class="comment-actions secondary-text"><a class="comment-reply" data-comment-id="5861522701889582104" style="color: #0066cc; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;" target="_self">Reply</a></span></div><div class="comment-replies" style="margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 1em;"></div><div class="comment-replybox-single" id="c5861522701889582104-ce" style="margin-left: 48px; margin-top: 5px;"></div></li><li class="comment" id="c6102741852080198369" style="margin-bottom: 16px; padding-bottom: 8px;"><div class="avatar-image-container" style="float: left; max-height: 36px; overflow: hidden; width: 36px;"><img alt="" src="http://resources.blogblog.com/img/blank.gif" style="max-width: 36px;" /></div><div class="comment-block" style="margin-left: 48px; position: relative;"><div class="comment-header" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><cite class="user" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;">Anonymous</cite><span class="icon user " style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span class="datetime secondary-text" style="margin-left: 6px;"><a href="http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/2012/03/keynes-had-no-formal-economics-degree.html?showComment=1330995514849#c6102741852080198369" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">March 5, 2012 at 4:58 PM</a></span></div><p class="comment-content" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px; text-align: justify;">Alan turing didn't have a degree in computer science, nor did Knuth. Many contributions in that field came from people who did not have a degree in CS. There are other examples. I read a lot about Noam Chomsky and he gave a few lectures to engineers. Engineers voluntarily showed up to hear what he had to say about engineering. I'm not somebody who is obsessed with Keynes or anything but I can see how he might have made fundamental contributions without being an economist.<br /><br />And for that matter what did Mises/Hayek/Hoppe etc. have their degrees in?<br /><br />-successfulbuild</p><span class="comment-actions secondary-text"><a class="comment-reply" data-comment-id="6102741852080198369" style="color: #0066cc; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;" target="_self">Reply</a></span></div><div class="comment-replies" style="margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 1em;"></div><div class="comment-replybox-single" id="c6102741852080198369-ce" style="margin-left: 48px; margin-top: 5px;"></div></li><li class="comment" id="c4823031401752733979" style="margin-bottom: 16px; padding-bottom: 8px;"><div class="avatar-image-container" style="float: left; max-height: 36px; overflow: hidden; width: 36px;"><img alt="" src="http://www.blogger.com/img/blogger_logo_round_35.png" style="max-width: 36px;" /></div><div class="comment-block" style="margin-left: 48px; position: relative;"><div class="comment-header" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><cite class="user" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/profile/15287835907015065883" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Prateek</a></cite><span class="icon user " style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span class="datetime secondary-text" style="margin-left: 6px;"><a href="http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/2012/03/keynes-had-no-formal-economics-degree.html?showComment=1331001073022#c4823031401752733979" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">March 5, 2012 at 6:31 PM</a></span></div><p class="comment-content" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px; text-align: justify;">Doesn't it basically reflect that economics was not an exclusive and specialized area, but a general area open to all who cared to inquire?</p><span class="comment-actions secondary-text"><a class="comment-reply" data-comment-id="4823031401752733979" style="color: #0066cc; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;" target="_self">Reply</a></span></div><div class="comment-replies" style="margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 1em;"></div><div class="comment-replybox-single" id="c4823031401752733979-ce" style="margin-left: 48px; margin-top: 5px;"></div></li><li class="comment" id="c6672766068882468053" style="margin-bottom: 16px; padding-bottom: 8px;"><div class="avatar-image-container" style="float: left; max-height: 36px; overflow: hidden; width: 36px;"><img alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguGuBlEVjWpMIDfSdnI1mpznalAirsMwlAJAejHZTgPJM4PFrgtKTtm2U6762Xj_eaqmmWLx26tN4dxRdgyaT577qMkGVax9L9kiGzy_vhrRsocFTssINHXYRVC5TU7INBtHb17MPUzKyE/s35/*" style="max-width: 36px;" /></div><div class="comment-block" style="margin-left: 48px; position: relative;"><div class="comment-header" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><cite class="user" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/profile/06839882674758833524" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">David Lindsay</a></cite><span class="icon user " style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span class="datetime secondary-text" style="margin-left: 6px;"><a href="http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/2012/03/keynes-had-no-formal-economics-degree.html?showComment=1331053296400#c6672766068882468053" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">March 6, 2012 at 9:01 AM</a></span></div><p class="comment-content" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px; text-align: justify;">Friedman is at most a partial exception. Hayek, in particular, is still looked at askance even by very right-wing "proper" economists, although they realise that they have to be careful to whom they say these things. It is very much like the attitude of even very conservative "proper" theologians when it comes to C S Lewis or G K Chesterton: they are perhaps vaguely glad that anyone has been pointed in the right direction by having been converted to the former's Mere Christianity or to the latter's Orthodoxy, and they might even have been such people when they were very young indeed, but that is strictly as far as it goes. I am not necessarily endorsing such a view, only pointing out that it is there. And that is also the attitude to Hayek even among those who might be regarded as on the same side as he was.<br /><br />Hayek was a political philosopher. One of his doctorates was in political science. The other one was not in economics. Economists are not necessarily being complimentary when they call someone a political philosopher, any more than vice versa. And even as one of those, if Reagan and Thatcher really did believe themselves to have been influenced by Hayek, then, as Enoch Powell said of his own alleged influence over Thatcher, they cannot have understood any of it. Powell is another example of this post's main point, since his only academic background was in Classics generally and Ancient Greek specifically.<br /><br />But he had overriding and undergirding social, cultural and political reasons why he wanted the economy to be organised in a certain way. He did not see economics as a positive science. That was why he was influential. And that was why he would never have passed muster as a "proper" economist. Nor would Keynes. Nor would Hayek. Nor, really, would Friedman. Nor, even, would Adam Smith. The only figure of any importance to have held that politics ought to be defined in terms of economics, rather than they other way round, was Marx, so that thus to define is precisely to be a Marxist. But Marx, a lover of philosophy and literature whose father had forced him to do law at university but who was never very good at it, had no academic background in economics, either.<br /><br />There was no Keynesian closed shop among economists in the 1970s, but those who screamed themselves to prominence on the claim that there was have now created a neoliberal closed shop with the catastrophic consequences that we now experience, and which we shall continue to experience while almost the only economics taught to undergraduates or published in peer-reviewed journals seriously maintains that the way out of recession is the State's contrivance of even more unemployment and of even less spending power. As we nurse our wounds, we shall remember those who pulled the triggers. But we must not forget those who loaded the guns, or those who manufactured the bullets. Nor will we.</p><span class="comment-actions secondary-text"><a class="comment-reply" data-comment-id="6672766068882468053" style="color: #0066cc; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;" target="_self">Reply</a></span></div><div class="comment-replies" style="margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 1em;"></div><div class="comment-replybox-single" id="c6672766068882468053-ce" style="margin-left: 48px; margin-top: 5px;"></div></li><li class="comment" id="c7809798733430281779" style="border-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 16px; padding-bottom: 0px;"><div class="avatar-image-container" style="float: left; max-height: 36px; overflow: hidden; width: 36px;"><img alt="" src="http://www.blogger.com/img/blogger_logo_round_35.png" style="max-width: 36px;" /></div><div class="comment-block" style="margin-left: 48px; position: relative;"><div class="comment-header" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><cite class="user" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: bold;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/profile/06031818010224747000" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">Calgacus</a></cite><span class="icon user " style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span class="datetime secondary-text" style="margin-left: 6px;"><a href="http://socialdemocracy21stcentury.blogspot.com/2012/03/keynes-had-no-formal-economics-degree.html?showComment=1331431814307#c7809798733430281779" rel="nofollow" style="color: #0066cc; text-decoration-line: none;">March 10, 2012 at 6:10 PM</a></span></div><p class="comment-content" style="margin: 0px 0px 8px; text-align: justify;"><i>Alan Turing didn't have a degree in computer science, nor did Knuth. Many contributions in that field came from people who did not have a degree in CS.</i><br /><br />Well, there was good reason for that, that such degrees did not and could not exist. People who found disciplines cannot have degrees in them. The guy who invented the wheel didn't have a degree in rotational motion devices either.</p><span class="comment-actions secondary-text"><a class="comment-reply" data-comment-id="7809798733430281779" style="color: #0066cc; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;" target="_self">Reply</a></span></div><div class="comment-replies" style="margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 1em;"></div><div class="comment-replybox-single" id="c7809798733430281779-ce" style="margin-left: 48px; margin-top: 5px;"></div></li></ol><div class="comment-replybox-thread" id="top-ce" style="margin-top: 5px;"><iframe allowtransparency="true" class="blogger-iframe-colorize blogger-comment-from-post" data-resized="true" frameborder="0" height="66px" id="comment-editor" name="comment-editor" src="https://www.blogger.com/comment/frame/6245381193993153721?po=4242036072325460474&hl=en&blogspotRpcToken=9987550#%7B%22color%22:%22rgb(51,%2051,%2051)%22,%22backgroundColor%22:%22rgb(255,%20255,%20255)%22,%22unvisitedLinkColor%22:%22rgb(0,%20102,%20204)%22,%22fontFamily%22:%22Georgia,%20serif%22%7D" style="display: block;" width="100%"></iframe></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-24197754844606002242023-04-14T03:59:00.005-07:002023-04-14T04:01:42.031-07:00How the digital era helped speed up bank runs<p> Digital Bank runs can and do happen very fast because money ofcourse is digital, or electronic these days. In TFE or Transfinancial Economics this point is realized....RS</p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><div class="post__col" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/NewsArticle" style="-webkit-box-direction: normal; -webkit-box-orient: horizontal; background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #31445d; display: flex; flex-direction: row; font-family: Akkurat, Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 250px 40px 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="post__col-right" style="border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(214, 223, 232); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 1px; flex-shrink: 1; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 40px 0px 0px 20px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 909px; z-index: 1;"><h1 class="post__title" itemprop="headline" style="border: 0px; color: #161f2d; font-family: Publico, Georgia, Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 60px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.08em; margin: 0px 0px 15px; max-width: 900px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></h1><a class="post__category" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy" style="border: 0px; color: #f83036; display: inline-block; font-family: Akkurat-Mono, "Lucida Console", "Courier New", monospace; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.2em; margin: 0px 10px 40px 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">Economy</a> <time class="post__date" content="2023-03-15T16:46:29-04:00" itemprop="datePublished" style="border: 0px; color: #7e97ad; display: inline-block; font-family: Akkurat-Mono, "Lucida Console", "Courier New", monospace; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Updated on Mar 15, 2023 5:24 PM EDT — Published on Mar 15, 2023 4:46 PM EDT</time><article itemprop="articleBody" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="body-text" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 900px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">NEW YORK (AP) — A bank run conjures images of “It’s a Wonderful Life,” with anxious customers crammed shoulder to shoulder, desperately pleading with a harried George Bailey to hand over their money.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The failure of Silicon Valley Bank last week had the panic but few other similarities, instead taking place on Twitter, message boards, mobile phones and bank websites.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">What made the failure of Silicon Valley Bank unique compared to past failures of large banks was how quickly it collapsed. Last Wednesday afternoon, the $200 billion bank announced a plan to raise fresh capital; by Friday morning it was insolvent and under government control.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Regulators, policymakers and bankers are looking at the role that digital messaging and social media may have played in the collapse, and whether banks are entering an age when the psychological behavior behind a bank run — mass fear from depositors of losing their savings — may be amplified and go viral quicker than bank officers and regulators can successfully respond.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">“It was a bank sprint, not a bank run, and social media played a central role in that,” said Michael Imerman, a professor at the Paul Merage School of Business at the University of California-Irvine.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation estimates that customers withdrew $40 billion — one fifth of Silicon Valley Bank’s deposits — in just a few hours, prompting the agency to shut down the bank before 12 p.m. ET, instead of waiting until the close of business, which is typical operating procedure for regulators when a bank runs short of money.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Some other well-known bank failures, such as <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/how-the-2008-financial-crisis-fuels-todays-populist-politics" style="border: 0px; box-shadow: rgb(214, 223, 232) 0px -1px 0px inset; color: #f83036; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">IndyMac or Washington Mutual in 2008</a> or Continental Illinois in the 1980s, only happened after days or weeks of reports indicated those banks faced deep financial difficulties. Then a run occurred and regulators stepped in.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/what-to-know-about-the-silicon-valley-bank-collapse" style="border: 0px; box-shadow: rgb(214, 223, 232) 0px -1px 0px inset; color: #f83036; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #161f2d; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">EXPLAINER:</span> What to know about the Silicon Valley Bank collapse</a></p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Silicon Valley Bank run was, in many ways, the first of the digital era. Few depositors lined up at a branch. Instead, they used bank apps and phone calls to access their money in minutes. Venture capitalists and business owners described the early stages of the Silicon Valley run being led by private message boards or Slack channels, where entrepreneurs were encouraged to withdraw their funds.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Silicon Valley Bank also was unique in being almost entirely exposed to one community — the tech industry, venture capital and startups. When this close-knit community of depositors talked to one another — using digital channels to do so quickly — the bank likely became more vulnerable to rumors and a run. This was a risk outside of the growth of social media, industry experts said.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sam Altman, CEO of Open AI, tweeted: “the speed of the world has changed. things can unwind fast. people talk fast. people move money fast.”</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">While the withdrawals initially may have been orderly, they became a full-on bank run Thursday evening after the news spilled over to Twitter that billionaire venture capitalist Peter Thiel had advised his invested companies to close their accounts with Silicon Valley Bank.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">“If you are not advising your companies to get the cash out, then you are not doing your job as a Board Member or as a Shareholder. Daily life in startups is risky enough, don’t play with your lifeline…,” wrote Mark Tluszcz, the CEO of Europe-based investment firm Mangrove, on Twitter that Friday morning.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">For David Murray, the warning of the first bank run of the social-media age came in a one-sentence email.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">He’s a co-founder of Confirm.com, an employee performance management company in San Francisco that had millions of dollars sitting in accounts at Silicon Valley Bank.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Murray received a terse email Thursday morning saying that a run was underway there and recommending everyone pull their money out immediately. The email came from an investor whom Murray hears from so infrequently that his co-founder wondered if it was a phishing attempt or other scam.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/analysis-what-silicon-valley-bank-collapse-means-for-the-u-s-financial-system" style="border: 0px; box-shadow: rgb(214, 223, 232) 0px -1px 0px inset; color: #f83036; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #161f2d; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">ANALYSIS:</span> What Silicon Valley Bank collapse means for the U.S. financial system</a></p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">After verifying the email and seeing the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/stocks-rally-on-wall-street-following-inflation-report-bank-failures" style="border: 0px; box-shadow: rgb(214, 223, 232) 0px -1px 0px inset; color: #f83036; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">steep drop in the stock price</a> of the bank’s parent company, SVB Financial, Murray and his colleagues rushed to withdraw the company’s money. Instead of heading to a branch, they quickly pulled up a webpage and logged in. It took a few tries, but they eventually moved every cent to an account at a different bank within a half hour.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Murray could see fear rising among other startup companies in real time.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">“We have a trusted network of founders” of startup companies who communicate with each other over Slack, Murray said. “Normally these chat groups are dead. But that day, all the Slack groups were lit up.”</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">As depicted with the fictional Building and Loan in “ It’s a Wonderful Life,” runs on a bank often start off as a rumor and can quickly devolve to a tribal-like collective fear that sends depositors clamoring for their money, even when nothing is wrong. Because a bank run can happen at random and is hard to stop once started, the U.S. government created the FDIC to stop future bank runs under the premise that depositors’ funds would be insured.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Between 1930 and 1933, during the Great Depression, roughly 9,000 banks failed. Since the FDIC’s creation in 1933, bank runs have become much rarer. According to the FDIC, there were 562 bank failures between 2001 and 2023, with the vast majority of those happening during the 2007-2009 recession.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The entire banking industry is now grappling with the fact that they could be the next target of a social media-fueled bank run. The hive-like behavior is similar to what happened during the 2021 “meme stock” boom where companies were targeted by groups of mostly retail investors, although in that case groups of investors were using social media to push stocks higher.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Silicon Valley Bank’s failure dominated social media platforms for days. Several prominent investors issued bombastic predictions that if the federal government did not step in to make all Silicon Valley Bank depositors whole — both insured and uninsured — there would be more bank runs on Monday.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">In the end, Washington capitulated. Under the plan announced by U.S. regulators on Sunday, depositors at Silicon Valley Bank were able to access all their money. A new Federal Reserve program will allow banks to post certain high-quality securities as collateral and borrow from a government emergency fund. Both Treasury and Federal Reserve officials told reporters over the weekend that the programs were created in part due to concerns further bank runs — fueled by social media — could occur.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">“The last several days represent a unique incident fueled by misinformation on social media and are not indicative of the health of our industry,” said Lindsey Johnson, president of the Consumer Bankers Association, in a statement.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">For policymakers, there doesn’t appear to be any immediate solution. One possibility that’s been around for decades — also depicted in “It’s a Wonderful Life” — is the idea of a bank holiday where regulators close a bank for a few days to allow for cooler heads to prevail.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 20px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">On Monday after the government stepped in to backstop the banking system, it seemed like a portion of the technology community had become aware of their ability to cause mass panic in finance and should be more careful when posting about the potential health of banks.</p><p style="border: 0px; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px; max-width: 700px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">“In the age of social media, if you have a big enough platform and yell loud enough about a bank run, you might eventually be correct. Doesn’t make it right,” wrote Logan Bartlett with Redpoint Ventures.</p></div></article></div><aside class="post__aside post__aside--besideImage" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 40px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 250px;"><p class="post__hero-caption" style="border: 0px; color: #7e97ad; font-size: 13px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: italic; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></span></p><p class="post__hero-caption" style="border: 0px; color: #7e97ad; font-size: 13px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><svg class="svg"><use xlink:href="#arrow-left"></use></svg><span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: italic; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Left:</span> FDIC representatives Luis Mayorga and Igor Fayermark speak with customers outside of the Silicon Valley Bank headquarters in Santa Clara, California, U.S. March 13, 2023. REUTERS/Brittany Hosea-Small</p><div class="post__aside-components" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><section class="post__aside-component" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><h2 class="post__aside-header" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(214, 223, 232); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #7e97ad; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 3px; vertical-align: baseline;">Related</h2><ul style="border: 0px; font: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><li class="post__aside-li" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(214, 223, 232); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><article class="card-text card-text--small" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="card-text__title" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/as-fears-renews-of-bank-weakness-stocks-tumble-on-wall-street" style="border: 0px; color: #161f2d; display: block; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: 1.3em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">As fears renews of bank weakness, stocks tumble on Wall Street</span></a><p class="card-text__byline" style="border: 0px; color: #7e97ad; font-size: 13px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 10px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Publico, Georgia, Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: italic; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 3px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">By</span> Stan Choe, Associated Press</p></article></li><li class="post__aside-li" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(214, 223, 232); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><article class="card-text card-text--small" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="card-text__title" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/why-silicon-valley-bank-and-signature-bank-failed-so-fast" style="border: 0px; color: #161f2d; display: block; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: 1.3em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">Analysis: Why Silicon Valley Bank and Signature Bank failed so fast</span></a><p class="card-text__byline" style="border: 0px; color: #7e97ad; font-size: 13px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 10px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Publico, Georgia, Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: italic; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 3px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">By</span> Vidhura S. Tennekoon, The Conversation</p></article></li><li class="post__aside-li" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><article class="card-text card-text--small" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="card-text__title" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/class-action-lawsuit-filed-against-silicon-valley-bank-parent-company" style="border: 0px; color: #161f2d; display: block; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: 1.3em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">Class action lawsuit filed against Silicon Valley Bank parent company</span></a><p class="card-text__byline" style="border: 0px; color: #7e97ad; font-size: 13px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 10px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Publico, Georgia, Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: italic; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 3px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">By</span> Michelle Chapman, Associated Press</p></article></li></ul></section><section class="post__aside-component" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><h2 class="post__aside-header" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(214, 223, 232); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #7e97ad; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 3px; vertical-align: baseline;">Go Deeper</h2><ul class="tag__list" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 20px 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><li class="tag__list-item" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 12px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/tag/bank-run" style="-webkit-box-decoration-break: clone; background-color: #161f2d; border: 0px; box-shadow: rgb(22, 31, 45) 0.4em 0px 0px, rgb(22, 31, 45) -0.4em 0px 0px; color: white; font-family: Akkurat-Mono, "Lucida Console", "Courier New", monospace; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3em; margin: 0px; padding: 0.6em 0px 0.45em; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; transition: background-color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">bank run</a></li><li class="tag__list-item" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 12px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/tag/signature-bank" style="-webkit-box-decoration-break: clone; background-color: #161f2d; border: 0px; box-shadow: rgb(22, 31, 45) 0.4em 0px 0px, rgb(22, 31, 45) -0.4em 0px 0px; color: white; font-family: Akkurat-Mono, "Lucida Console", "Courier New", monospace; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3em; margin: 0px; padding: 0.6em 0px 0.45em; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; transition: background-color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">signature bank</a></li><li class="tag__list-item" style="border: 0px; font: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 12px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/tag/silicon-valley-bank" style="-webkit-box-decoration-break: clone; background-color: #161f2d; border: 0px; box-shadow: rgb(22, 31, 45) 0.4em 0px 0px, rgb(22, 31, 45) -0.4em 0px 0px; color: white; font-family: Akkurat-Mono, "Lucida Console", "Courier New", monospace; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3em; margin: 0px; padding: 0.6em 0px 0.45em; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; transition: background-color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">silicon valley bank</a></li></ul></section></div></aside></div><section class="post__byline post__byline--bottom js-post__byline--bottom" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #31445d; font-family: Akkurat, Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 60px 250px 60px 0px; max-width: 820px; padding: 0px; transition: margin 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline; width: auto;"><address class="post__byline-address" style="-webkit-box-align: start; align-items: flex-start; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(22, 31, 45); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 4px 0px 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="post__byline-caption" style="border: 0px; flex-shrink: 1; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 820px;"><span class="post__byline-by" style="border: 0px; color: #7e97ad; display: inline-block; font-family: Publico, Georgia, Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: italic; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;">By —</span> <p class="post__byline-name" style="border: 0px; color: #161f2d; display: inline-block; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="post__byline-name-unhyphenated" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/author/ken-sweet-associated-press" itemprop="author" itemscope="" itemtype="https://schema.org/Person" style="border: 0px; color: #f83036; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">Ken Sweet, Associated Press</a></p></div></address><address class="post__byline-address" style="-webkit-box-align: start; align-items: flex-start; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(214, 223, 232); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 0px 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="post__byline-caption" style="border: 0px; flex-shrink: 1; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 820px;"><span class="post__byline-by" style="border: 0px; color: #7e97ad; display: inline-block; font-family: Publico, Georgia, Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: italic; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;">By —</span> <p class="post__byline-name" style="border: 0px; color: #161f2d; display: inline-block; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="post__byline-name-unhyphenated" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/author/stan-choe-associated-press" itemprop="author" itemscope="" itemtype="https://schema.org/Person" style="border: 0px; color: #f83036; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s, -webkit-box-shadow 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">Stan Choe, Associated Press</a></p></div></address></section>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-80577906005680414822023-04-14T03:37:00.004-07:002023-04-14T03:40:48.312-07:00What Is a Bank Run? Definition, Examples, and How It Works<p> </p><div class="loc article-pre-content" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #111111; font-family: SourceSansPro, "Source Sans Pro-fallback", sans-serif; font-size: 18px; grid-area: pre-content / pre-content / pre-content / pre-content; letter-spacing: 0.05px;"><header class="comp right-rail__offset article-header mntl-block" id="article-header_2-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; grid-area: header / header / header / header;"><div class="comp sponsorship-wrapper mntl-block" id="sponsorship-wrapper_2-0" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><div class="comp article-meta mntl-block" data-tracking-container="true" id="article-meta_2-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 0px 0.75rem; position: relative;"><div class="comp finance-bylines mntl-bylines" id="finance-bylines_2-0" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="comp mntl-bylines__group--author mntl-bylines__group mntl-block" id="mntl-bylines__group_2-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: 2; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="comp mntl-bylines__item mntl-attribution__item mntl-attribution__item--has-date" id="mntl-bylines__item_2-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; line-height: 1;"><span class="mntl-attribution__item-descriptor" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin-right: 0.25rem;">By</span> <div class="mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-inline-tooltip="true" data-tooltip-position-x="left" data-tooltip-position-y="bottom" data-tooltip="<p>Adam Hayes, Ph.D., CFA, is a financial writer with 15+ years Wall Street experience as a derivatives trader. Besides his extensive derivative trading expertise, Adam is an expert in economics and behavioral finance. Adam received his master's in economics from The New School for Social Research and his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in sociology. He is a CFA charterholder as well as holding FINRA Series 7, 55 & 63 licenses. He currently researches and teaches economic sociology and the social studies of finance at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.</p>" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin-right: 0.25rem; position: relative;"><a class="mntl-attribution__item-name" data-trigger-link="true" href="https://www.investopedia.com/contributors/53677/" rel="nocaes" style="border-bottom-style: dashed; border-bottom-width: 1px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #111111; display: inline; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; letter-spacing: 0.05rem; line-height: 1; padding-bottom: 1px; text-decoration-line: none; text-transform: uppercase;">ADAM HAYES</a></div></div> <div class="mntl-attribution__item-date" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline;">Updated March 14, 2023</div></div><div class="comp mntl-bylines__group--finance_reviewer mntl-bylines__group mntl-block" id="mntl-bylines__group_2-0-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: 2; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><div class="comp mntl-bylines__item mntl-attribution__item" id="mntl-bylines__item_2-0-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; line-height: 1;"><span class="mntl-attribution__item-descriptor" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin-right: 0.25rem;">Reviewed by</span> <div class="mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-inline-tooltip="true" data-tooltip-position-x="left" data-tooltip-position-y="bottom" data-tooltip="Somer G. Anderson is CPA, doctor of accounting, and an accounting and finance professor who has been working in the accounting and finance industries for more than 20 years. Her expertise covers a wide range of accounting, corporate finance, taxes, lending, and personal finance areas." style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin-right: 0.25rem; position: relative;"><a class="mntl-attribution__item-name" data-trigger-link="true" href="https://www.investopedia.com/somer-g-anderson-4799773" rel="nocaes" style="border-bottom-style: dashed; border-bottom-width: 1px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #111111; display: inline; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; letter-spacing: 0.05rem; line-height: 1; padding-bottom: 1px; text-decoration-line: none; text-transform: uppercase;">SOMER ANDERSON</a></div></div></div></div></div></header></div><div class="loc article-content" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #111111; font-family: SourceSansPro, "Source Sans Pro-fallback", sans-serif; font-size: 18px; grid-area: content / content / content / content; letter-spacing: 0.05px;"><div class="comp article-body mntl-block" data-contain-tooltips="true" id="article-body_1-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; position: relative;"><div class="comp article-body-content mntl-sc-page mntl-block" data-bind-scroll-on-start="true" data-sc-ad-label-height="0" data-sc-ad-track-spacing="90" data-sc-breakpoint="50em" data-sc-content-positions="[300, 1, 1, 1250, 1, 1, 1, 1]" data-sc-load-immediate="2" data-sc-max-track-height="600" data-sc-min-track-height="250" data-sc-sticky-offset="80" id="mntl-sc-page_1-0" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span class="heading-toc" id="toc-what-is-a-bank-run" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span><h2 class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.625rem; font-weight: bolder; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;"><span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text" style="box-sizing: border-box;">What Is a Bank Run?</span></h2><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">A bank run is when a large number of customers of a bank or other financial institution withdraw their deposits at the same time over fears about the bank's solvency. As more people withdraw their funds, the probability of default increases, which, in turn, can cause more people to withdraw their deposits. In extreme cases, the bank's reserves may not be sufficient to cover the withdrawals.</p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-2" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-callout mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-3" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="comp theme-whatyouneedtoknow mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-callout mntl-block" data-tracking-container="true" data-tracking-id="mntl-sc-block-callout" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-4" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 1rem 0px 2rem; position: relative;"><h3 class="comp mntl-sc-block-callout-heading mntl-text-block" id="mntl-sc-block-callout-heading_1-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: 0.05rem; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px; padding: 1.5625rem 1.25rem 0.5625rem; text-transform: uppercase;"></h3><div class="comp mntl-sc-block-callout-body mntl-text-block" id="mntl-sc-block-callout-body_1-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0px 1.25rem 1.25rem;"><ul style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-left: 1.5rem;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box; padding-bottom: 0.375rem;">A bank run occurs when a large group of depositors withdraw their money from banks at the same time.</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; padding-bottom: 0.375rem;">Customers in bank runs typically withdraw money based on fears that the institution will become insolvent.</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; padding-bottom: 0.375rem;">With more people withdrawing money, banks will use up their cash reserves and can end up defaulting.</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; padding-bottom: 0.375rem;">Bank runs have occurred throughout history, including during the Great Depression and the 2008 financial crisis.</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.375rem;">The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was established in 1933 to try to reduce the occurrence of bank runs.</li></ul></div></div></div><div class="comp has-details inline-video mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-inlinevideo mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-5" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 2rem 0px; width: 596px;"><div class="comp mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo__video-container mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo__video-container_1-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; position: relative;"><div aria-describedby="jw-mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo__video_1-0-shortcuts-tooltip-explanation" aria-label="Video Player" class="jwplayer jw-reset jw-state-idle jw-stretch-uniform jw-flag-aspect-mode jw-skin-mantle jw-breakpoint-3 jw-flag-user-inactive" id="mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo__video_1-0" role="application" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0); background-color: transparent; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: inherit; direction: ltr; float: none; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; height: auto; line-height: 1em; list-style: none; margin: 0px; min-height: 0px; outline: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline; width: 596px; z-index: 1;" tabindex="0"><div class="jw-aspect jw-reset" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0); background-color: transparent; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: inherit; direction: ltr; float: none; font-size: 1em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1em; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 335.25px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></div><div class="jw-wrapper jw-reset" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0); background-color: black; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: inherit; direction: ltr; float: none; font-size: 1em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; inset: 0px; line-height: 1em; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; vertical-align: baseline;"><div style="box-sizing: inherit; height: 335.25px; left: 0px; opacity: 0; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 0px; visibility: hidden; width: 596px;"><div style="box-sizing: inherit; height: 335.25px; left: 0px; overflow: auto; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 596px;"><div style="box-sizing: inherit; height: 1px; width: 597px;"></div></div><div class="jw-contract-trigger" style="box-sizing: inherit; height: 335.25px; left: 0px; overflow: auto; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 596px;"></div></div><div class="jw-top jw-reset" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0); background-color: transparent; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: inherit; direction: ltr; float: none; font-size: 1em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; height: 2em; line-height: 2; list-style: none; margin: 0px; opacity: 0.8; padding: 0px; pointer-events: none; position: absolute; text-align: center; top: -2em; vertical-align: baseline; width: 596px;"></div><div class="jw-aspect jw-reset" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0); background-color: transparent; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: inherit; direction: ltr; float: none; font-size: 1em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1em; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 335.25px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></div><div class="jw-media jw-reset" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0); background-color: transparent; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: inherit; cursor: pointer; direction: ltr; float: none; font-size: 1em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; height: 335.25px; inset: 0px; line-height: 1em; list-style: none; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; pointer-events: all; position: absolute; vertical-align: baseline; width: 596px;"><br /></div><div class="jw-preview jw-reset" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0); background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: url("https://cdn.jwplayer.com/v2/media/7BbftiwT/poster.jpg?width=640"); background-origin: initial; background-position: 50% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: cover; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: inherit; direction: ltr; float: none; font-size: 1em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; height: 335.25px; inset: 0px; line-height: 1em; list-style: none; margin: 0px; opacity: 1; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; pointer-events: none; position: absolute; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible; width: 596px;"></div></div></div></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo__feature-link-wrapper mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo__feature-link-wrapper_1-0" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span class="comp mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo__feature-link mntl-text-link mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo__feature-link mntl-text-link" id="mntl-sc-block-inlinevideo__feature-link_1-0" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span></div></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-6" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><span class="heading-toc" id="toc-how-bank-runs-work" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span><h2 class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-7" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.625rem; font-weight: bolder; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;"><span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text" style="box-sizing: border-box;">How Bank Runs Work</span></h2><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-8" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Bank runs happen when a large number of people start making withdrawals from a bank because they fear the institution will run out of money. A bank run is typically the result of panic rather than true <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="1" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/insolvency.asp" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">insolvency</a>. However, a bank run triggered by fear can push a bank into actual insolvency. So what begins as unfounded panic can eventually turn into a default.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-9" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">1</span></span></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-9" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-10" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Most institutions have a set limit to how much they can store in their vaults each day. These limits are set based on need and for security reasons. At the same time, banks are required to keep a minimum amount of cash reserves on hand, either in a bank vault or in an account with a central bank, to minimize the risks related to bank runs.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-20" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">2</span></span><span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-10" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">3</span></span></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-11" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="comp native mntl-native" data-right-rail-index="3" id="native_1-0" style="--native-ad-height: auto; box-sizing: border-box; height: var(--native-ad-height); width: 596px;"><div class="comp scads-to-load mntl-native__adunit mntl-gpt-dynamic-adunit mntl-gpt-adunit gpt native dynamic js-lazy-ad is-requested" data-ad-height="fluid" data-ad-width="fluid" id="mntl-native__adunit_1-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; min-height: 286px; text-align: center;"><div class="wrapper" data-google-query-id="CIz6nI-Wqf4CFdj37QodHMsH-w" data-pos="native" data-priority="4" data-rtb="false" data-sizes="[[1, 3],"fluid"]" data-targeting="{}" data-type="native" data-wait-for-third-party="false" id="native" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><div id="google_ads_iframe_3865/ddm.investopedia.com/ntv1_0__container__" style="border: 0pt none; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; height: auto; width: 596px;"><iframe aria-label="Advertisement" data-google-container-id="1" data-is-safeframe="true" data-load-complete="true" frameborder="0" height="286" id="google_ads_iframe_3865/ddm.investopedia.com/ntv1_0" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" name="" role="region" sandbox="allow-forms allow-popups allow-popups-to-escape-sandbox allow-same-origin allow-scripts allow-top-navigation-by-user-activation" scrolling="no" src="https://3577caab62e609c1ef272af1d97abbbf.safeframe.googlesyndication.com/safeframe/1-0-40/html/container.html" style="border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; min-width: 100%; vertical-align: bottom;" tabindex="0" title="3rd party ad content" width="0"></iframe></div></div></div></div></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-12" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Because banks typically keep only a small percentage of deposits as cash on hand, they must increase their cash position to meet the withdrawal demands of their customers. One method a bank uses to increase cash on hand is to sell off its assets—sometimes at significantly lower prices than if it did not have to sell quickly. Losses on the sale of assets at lower prices can cause concern which can trigger withdrawals.</p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-13" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><span class="heading-toc" id="toc-examples-of-bank-runs" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span><h2 class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-14" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.625rem; font-weight: bolder; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;"><span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text" style="box-sizing: border-box;">Examples of Bank Runs</span></h2><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-15" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">In modern history, bank runs are often associated with the Great Depression. In the wake of the <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="1" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/stock-market-crash-1929.asp" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">1929 stock market crash</a>, American depositors began to panic and seek refuge in holding physical cash. A succession of bank runs on thousands of banks occurred in the early 1930s in a domino effect.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-21" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">4</span></span></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-16" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-17" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">In response to the bank runs of the 1930s, the U.S. government set up several regulatory mechanisms to try to prevent bank runs, including establishing the <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="1" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/fdic.asp" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a> (FDIC), which today insures depositors up to $250,000 per banking institution.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-5" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">5</span></span></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-18" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-19" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">However, bank runs still occur. More recent examples of significant bank runs include those on Silicon Valley Bank, Washington Mutual Bank (WaMu), and Wachovia Bank.</p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-20" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><h3 class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-subheading mntl-sc-block-subheading" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-21" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.375rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;"><span class="mntl-sc-block-subheading__text" style="box-sizing: border-box;">Silicon Valley Bank</span></h3><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-22" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">The collapse of <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="1" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/what-happened-to-silicon-valley-bank-7368676" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">Silicon Valley Bank</a> in March 2023 was a result of a bank run caused by venture capitalists. The bank reported that it needed $2.25 billion to shore up its balance sheet, and by the end of the following business day customers had withdrawn about $42 billion. Regulators closed the bank and took control of its assets.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-13" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">6</span></span><span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-11" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">7</span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-23" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-24" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Silicon Valley Bank had last reported $209 billion in assets as of the fourth quarter of 2022, making it the second-largest bank failure of all time.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-12" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">8</span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-25" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><h3 class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-subheading mntl-sc-block-subheading" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-26" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.375rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;"><span class="mntl-sc-block-subheading__text" style="box-sizing: border-box;">Washington Mutual (WaMu)</span></h3><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-27" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Washington Mutual (WaMu), which had about $310 billion in assets at the time of its failure in 2008, was the largest bank failure in the U.S. Its collapse was caused by a number of factors including a poor housing market and rapid expansion. The bank also suffered a run when customers withdrew $16.7 billion within two weeks.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-15" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">9</span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-28" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-29" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Washington Mutual was eventually bought by JPMorgan Chase for $1.9 billion.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-14" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">10</span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-30" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><h3 class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-subheading mntl-sc-block-subheading" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-31" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.375rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;"><span class="mntl-sc-block-subheading__text" style="box-sizing: border-box;">Wachovia Bank</span></h3><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-32" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Wachovia Bank was also shuttered after depositors withdrew over $15 billion over a two-week period after Wachovia reported negative earnings results. Wachovia was eventually acquired by Wells Fargo for $15 billion.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-8" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">11</span></span></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-33" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-34" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Much of the withdrawals at Wachovia were concentrated among commercial accounts with balances above the limit insured by the <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="1" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/fdic.asp" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a> (FDIC), drawing those balances down to just below the FDIC limit.<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-35" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-callout mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-36" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="comp theme-note mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-callout mntl-block" data-tracking-container="true" data-tracking-id="mntl-sc-block-callout" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-37" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><h3 class="comp no-title mntl-sc-block-callout-heading mntl-text-block" id="mntl-sc-block-callout-heading_1-0-1" style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(225, 226, 230); border-top: 1px solid rgb(225, 226, 230); box-sizing: border-box; color: #ff8c6c; display: inline-block; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: 0.05rem; line-height: 0.8rem; margin: 0px; padding: 1.25rem 0.5rem 0px 1rem;"></h3><div class="comp mntl-sc-block-callout-body mntl-text-block" id="mntl-sc-block-callout-body_1-0-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 2rem; padding: 0px 1rem 0.6rem; position: relative;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; font-style: italic; line-height: 1.75rem; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">The failure of large investment banks like Lehman Brothers, AIG, and Bear Stearns was not the result of a bank run. Rather, these bank failures resulted from a credit and liquidity crisis involving <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="1" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/derivative.asp" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">derivatives</a> and <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="2" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/asset-backedsecurity.asp" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">asset-backed securities</a>.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-23" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">12</span></span><span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-22" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">13</span></span></p></div></div></div><span class="heading-toc" id="toc-preventing-bank-runs" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span><h2 class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-38" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.625rem; font-weight: bolder; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;"><span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text" style="box-sizing: border-box;">Preventing Bank Runs</span></h2><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-39" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">In response to the turmoil of the 1930s, governments took several steps to diminish the risk of future bank runs. Perhaps the biggest was establishing <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="1" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/requiredreserves.asp" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">reserve requirements</a>, which mandate that banks maintain a certain percentage of total deposits on hand as cash.</p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-40" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-41" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Additionally, the U.S. Congress established the FDIC in 1933 to insure bank deposits in response to the many bank failures that happened in the preceding years. Its mission is to maintain stability and public confidence in the U.S. financial system.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-16" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">14</span></span></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-42" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-43" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">The FDIC provides $250,000 worth of insurance per depositor, per account for banks that have FDIC backing. That means, if a bank fails, your deposits will be protected up to that amount.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-17" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">15</span></span></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-44" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-callout mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-45" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="comp theme-note mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-callout mntl-block" data-tracking-container="true" data-tracking-id="mntl-sc-block-callout" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-46" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><h3 class="comp no-title mntl-sc-block-callout-heading mntl-text-block" id="mntl-sc-block-callout-heading_1-0-2" style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(225, 226, 230); border-top: 1px solid rgb(225, 226, 230); box-sizing: border-box; color: #ff8c6c; display: inline-block; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: 0.05rem; line-height: 0.8rem; margin: 0px; padding: 1.25rem 0.5rem 0px 1rem;"></h3><div class="comp mntl-sc-block-callout-body mntl-text-block" id="mntl-sc-block-callout-body_1-0-2" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 2rem; padding: 0px 1rem 0.6rem; position: relative;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; font-style: italic; line-height: 1.75rem; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">In some cases, the FDIC may extend its coverage. For example, when Silicon Valley Bank failed in 2023, the FDIC used funds from the Deposit Insurance Fund to fully reimburse depositors. The money in the fund is furnished by quarterly fees assed on banks.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-19" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">16</span></span></p></div></div></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-47" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">In some cases, banks need to take a more proactive approach if faced with the threat of a bank run. For example, they may temporarily close to prevent people from withdrawing their money en masse. Franklin D. Roosevelt declared a bank holiday in 1933, calling for inspections to ensure banks' solvency so they could continue operating.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-18" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">17</span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-48" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-questionandanswer mntl-sc-block-questionandanswer" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-49" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span class="heading-toc" id="toc-what-is-a-silent-bank-run" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span><h2 class="mntl-sc-block-questionandanswer__question" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.625rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;">What Is a Silent Bank Run?</h2><div class="mntl-sc-block-questionandanswer__answer" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">A <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="1" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/silent-bank-run.asp" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">silent bank run</a> is when depositors withdraw funds electronically in large volumes without physically entering the bank. Silent bank runs are similar to normal bank runs, except funds are withdrawn via ACH transfers, wire transfers, and other methods that do not require physical withdrawals of cash.</p></div></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-50" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-questionandanswer mntl-sc-block-questionandanswer" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-51" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span class="heading-toc" id="toc-what-is-meant-by-a-run-on-the-bank" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span><h2 class="mntl-sc-block-questionandanswer__question" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.625rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;">What Is Meant by a Run on the Bank?</h2><div class="mntl-sc-block-questionandanswer__answer" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">When people literally run to their bank in order to withdraw their funds for fear of the bank collapsing is where the term originated. When this is done simultaneously by many depositors, the bank can <a data-component="link" data-ordinal="1" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" href="https://www.investopedia.com/diamond-dybrig-model-theory-of-bank-runs-6892094" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c40d0;">run out of cash</a> (due to fractional reserve banking) and collapse.</p></div></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-52" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-questionandanswer mntl-sc-block-questionandanswer" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-53" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span class="heading-toc" id="toc-why-is-a-bank-run-bad" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span><h2 class="mntl-sc-block-questionandanswer__question" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.625rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;">Why Is a Bank Run Bad?</h2><div class="mntl-sc-block-questionandanswer__answer" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">Bank runs create negative feedback loops that can bring down banks and cause a more systemic financial crisis. A bank usually only has a limited amount of cash on hand that is not that same amount of its overall deposits, if say, too many customers demand their money, the bank simply won't have enough to return to their depositors.</p></div></div><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-54" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><span class="heading-toc" id="toc-the-bottom-line" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span><h2 class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-55" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.625rem; font-weight: bolder; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem;"><span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text" style="box-sizing: border-box;">The Bottom Line</span></h2><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-56" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">A bank run is when bank customers flock to banks, either physically online, to make withdrawals because of a loss of confidence in the bank. In extreme cases, they can cause the collapse of a bank as a bank run did in 2023 with the closure of Silicon Valley Bank.</p><div class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-57" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></div><p class="comp mntl-sc-block finance-sc-block-html mntl-sc-block-html" id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-58" style="box-sizing: border-box; counter-reset: section 0; margin-bottom: 1.75rem; margin-top: 0px;">To reduce your risk of losing money in a bank run, you can keep the amount of your deposit under the FDIC insured limit of $250,000 per depositor, per insured bank. If you need to deposit more funds, you can open an account at another bank and receive the same protection.<span class="mntl-inline-citation mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger" data-id="#citation-17" style="align-items: baseline; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0000ee; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; font-size: 0.875rem; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.07em; line-height: 1; margin-left: 2px; padding-bottom: 0px; position: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; pointer-events: none; position: relative; top: -7px; z-index: 89;">15</span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></p></div><div class="comp textnote-placeholder mntl-block" id="textnote-placeholder_9-0" style="box-sizing: border-box; position: relative;"><div class="textnote__inner" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span class="sponsored" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-size: 0.625rem; letter-spacing: 0.05rem; position: absolute; right: 0px; text-transform: uppercase; top: 6px;">SPONSORED</span><div class="textnote__heading" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Cabin-semi-bold, Cabin-fallback, sans-serif; font-size: 1.625rem; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem; padding-right: 4.75rem;">Stocks? Indices? 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For other uses, see <a class="mw-disambig" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoengineering_(disambiguation)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Geoengineering (disambiguation)">Geoengineering (disambiguation)</a>.</div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><b>Climate engineering</b> (also called <b>geoengineering</b>) is a term used for both <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> (CDR) and solar radiation management (SRM), also called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_geoengineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar geoengineering">solar geoengineering</a>, when applied at a planetary scale.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 6–11">: 6–11 </span></sup> However, they have very different geophysical characteristics which is why the IPCC (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>) no longer uses this overarching term.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 6–11">: 6–11 </span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_2-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup> Carbon dioxide removal approaches are part of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>. Solar geoengineering involves reflecting some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_irradiance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar irradiance">sunlight (solar radiation)</a> back to space.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:022_3-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:022-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup> All forms of geoengineering are not a standalone solution to climate change, but need to be coupled with other forms of climate change mitigation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:023_4-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:023-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[4]</a></sup> Another approach to geoengineering is to increase the Earth's thermal emittance through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">passive radiative cooling</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:442_5-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:442-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:122222_6-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:122222-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[6]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:52_7-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:52-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[7]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is defined as "Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO2 sinks and direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage (DACCS), but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly caused by human activities."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_2-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some types of climate engineering are highly controversial due to the large uncertainties around effectiveness, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_effect" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Side effect">side effects</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unforeseen_consequences" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Unforeseen consequences">unforeseen consequences</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:04_8-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:04-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup> However, the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of the trajectory of climate change without them.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-perspectives2_9-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-perspectives2-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup></p><div class="toclimit-3"></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Definitions">Definitions</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate engineering (or geoengineering) has been used as an umbrella term for both CDR (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a>) and SRM (Solar radiation management or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_geoengineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar geoengineering">solar geoengineering</a>), when applied at a planetary scale.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 6–11">: 6–11 </span></sup> However, these two methods have very different geophysical characteristics, which is why the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) no longer uses this term.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 6–11">: 6–11 </span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_2-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[2]</a></sup> This decision was communicated in around 2018, see for example the "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_%C2%B0C" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C">Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C</a>".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 550">: 550 </span></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some authors, for example in the mainstream media, also include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">passive daytime radiative cooling</a> (PDRC), "ocean geoengineering" and others in the term of climate engineering.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:0-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:04_8-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:04-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Specific technologies that fall into the "climate engineering" umbrella term include:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:13_13-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:13-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 30">: 30 </span></sup></p><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> (CDR)<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochar" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biochar">Biochar</a> - Biochar is a high-carbon, fine-grained residue that is produced via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DOI10.1038/ncomms1053_14-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-DOI10.1038/ncomms1053-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[14]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a> (BECCS) - the process of extracting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioenergy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biomass">biomass</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon capture and storage">capturing and storing the carbon</a>, thereby <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide removal">removing it from the atmosphere</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Obersteiner2_15-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Obersteiner2-15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[15]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_air_capture" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a> and carbon storage (DACCS) - a process of capturing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide (CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span>)</a> directly from the ambient air (as opposed to capturing from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_source_pollution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Point source pollution">point sources</a>, such as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cement">cement</a> factory or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biomass">biomass</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_station" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Power station">power plant</a>) and generating a concentrated stream of CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestration</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_utilization" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon capture and utilization">utilization</a> or production of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">carbon-neutral fuel</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windgas" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Windgas">windgas</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_weathering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Enhanced weathering">Enhanced weathering</a> (EW) - a process that aims to accelerate the natural <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Weathering">weathering</a> by spreading finely ground <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Silicate mineral">silicate</a> rock, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, onto surfaces which speeds up chemical reactions between rocks, water, and air. It also <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide removal">removes carbon dioxide</a> (CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span>) from the atmosphere, permanently storing it in solid <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate_mineral" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbonate mineral">carbonate minerals</a> or ocean <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalinity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Alkalinity">alkalinity</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup> The latter also slows <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>.</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_geoengineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar geoengineering">Solar Radiation Management</a> (SRM)<ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_cloud_brightening" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine cloud brightening">Marine cloud brightening</a> (MCB) - a proposed technique that would make <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cloud">clouds</a> brighter, reflecting a small fraction of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_irradiance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar irradiance">incoming sunlight</a> back into space in order to offset <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming">anthropogenic global warming</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:1_17-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:1-17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[17]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_mirror_(climate_engineering)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Space mirror (climate engineering)">Mirrors in space</a> (MIS) - satellites that are designed to change the amount of solar radiation that impacts the Earth as a form of climate engineering. Since the conception of the idea in 1923, 1929, 1957 and 1978 (Hermann Oberth) and also in the 1980s, space mirrors have mainly been theorized as a way to deflect sunlight to counter <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming">global warming</a> and were seriously considered in the 2000s.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[18]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[20]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[21]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[22]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:3_23-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:3-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[23]</a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospheric_aerosol_injection" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stratospheric aerosol injection">Stratospheric aerosol injection</a> (SAI) - a proposed method to introduce <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aerosol">aerosols</a> into the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> to create a cooling effect via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_dimming" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global dimming">global dimming</a> and increased <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Albedo">albedo</a>, which occurs naturally from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Volcano">volcanic eruptions</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Crutzen062_24-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Crutzen062-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[24]</a></sup></li></ul></li></ul><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The following methods are not termed "climate engineering" in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">latest IPCC assessment report</a> in 2022<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 6–11">: 6–11 </span></sup> but are nevertheless included in other publications on this topic:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:04_8-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:04-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup></p><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">Passive daytime radiative cooling</a> (PDRC)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Ocean geoengineering (many of the methods grouped as "ocean engineering" are actually simply <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> techniques and hence included in the carbon dioxide removal category)</li></ul><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Methods">Methods</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Methods">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Carbon_dioxide_removal">Carbon dioxide removal</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Carbon dioxide removal">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">This section is an excerpt from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks" style="font-size: small; font-style: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit" style="background: none !important; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration-line: none;">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_planting_closeup.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="1882" data-file-width="1443" decoding="async" height="287" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Tree_planting_closeup.jpg/220px-Tree_planting_closeup.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Tree_planting_closeup.jpg/330px-Tree_planting_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Tree_planting_closeup.jpg/440px-Tree_planting_closeup.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_planting_closeup.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Planting trees is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nature-based solutions">nature-based</a> way of carbon dioxide removal. Though this is an important way of removing CO<span style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span>, both the land area and the complexity of creating permeant carbon removal, mean that it can only mitigate part of the historical emissions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[26]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> (CDR), also known as carbon removal, greenhouse gas removal (GGR) or negative emissions, is a process in which carbon dioxide gas (CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span>) is removed from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities and durably stored in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Carbon_dioxide_removal_IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_27-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Carbon_dioxide_removal_IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[27]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page / location: 2221">: 2221 </span></sup></p>In the context of net zero <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> targets,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[28]</a></sup> CDR is increasingly integrated into climate policy, as an element of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> strategies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[29]</a></sup> Achieving net zero emissions will require both deep cuts in emissions and the use of CDR. CDR can counterbalance emissions that are technically difficult to eliminate, such as some agricultural and industrial emissions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Carbon_dioxide_removal_:82_30-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Carbon_dioxide_removal_:82-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[30]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page: 114">: 114 </span></sup></div></div><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Solar_geoengineering">Solar geoengineering</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Solar geoengineering">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 322px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="refer to caption and image description" class="thumbimage" data-file-height="671" data-file-width="908" decoding="async" height="236" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg/320px-SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg/480px-SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg/640px-SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="320" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Proposed solar geoengineering using a tethered balloon to inject sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere.</div></div></div><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">This section is an excerpt from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_geoengineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar geoengineering">Solar geoengineering</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks" style="font-size: small; font-style: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar_geoengineering&action=edit" style="background: none !important; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration-line: none;">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_geoengineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar geoengineering">Solar geoengineering</a>, or solar radiation modification (SRM), is a type of climate engineering in which <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlight" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_irradiance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar irradiance">solar radiation</a>) would be reflected back to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Outer space">outer space</a> to limit or offset human-caused <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. There are multiple potential approaches, with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospheric_aerosol_injection" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Stratospheric aerosol injection">stratospheric aerosol injection</a> (SAI) being the most-studied method, followed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_cloud_brightening" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine cloud brightening">marine cloud brightening</a> (MCB).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup> Other methods have been proposed, including a variety of space-based approaches, but those are only theoretical, being too expensive and infeasible to implement in the foreseeable future.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_:11_32-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Solar_geoengineering_:11-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[32]</a></sup> All geoengineering methods can have a rapid cooling effect on atmospheric temperature, but if the intervention were to suddenly stop for any reason, the cooling would soon stop as well. It is estimated that the cooling impact from SAI would cease 1–3 years after the last aerosol injection, while the impact from marine cloud brightening would disappear in just 10 days. Contrastingly, once any <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> is added to the atmosphere and not removed, its warming impact does not <i>decrease</i> for a century, and some of it will persist for hundreds to thousands of years. As such, solar geoengineering is not a substitute for reducing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> but would act as a temporary measure to limit warming while emissions of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> are reduced and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide is removed</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_IPCC_WGI_SRM_33-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Solar_geoengineering_IPCC_WGI_SRM-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup></p>If solar geoengineering were to cease while greenhouse gas levels remained high, it would lead to "large and extremely rapid" warming and similarly abrupt changes to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>. Many thousands of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Species">species</a> would likely go <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Extinction risk from climate change">extinct</a> as the result.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_IPCC_WGI_SRM_33-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Solar_geoengineering_IPCC_WGI_SRM-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup> In spite of this risk, solar geoengineering is frequently discussed as a policy option because it is much faster and (in the short run) cheaper than any form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>. While cooling the atmosphere by 1 °C (1.8 °F) through stratospheric aerosol injection would cost at least $18 billion annually (at 2020 USD value),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_:1_34-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Solar_geoengineering_:1-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[34]</a></sup> and other approaches also cost tens of billions of dollars or more annually,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_Climate_Intervention2_35-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Solar_geoengineering_Climate_Intervention2-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup> this would still be "orders of magnitude" cheaper than greenhouse gas mitigation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[37]</a></sup></div></div><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling">Passive daytime radiative cooling</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Passive daytime radiative cooling">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Enhancing the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emissivity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Emissivity">thermal emissivity</a> of Earth through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">passive daytime radiative cooling</a> (PDRC) has been proposed as an alternative or "third approach" to geoengineering<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:442_5-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:442-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:12222_38-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:12222-38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[38]</a></sup> that is "less intrusive" and more predictable or reversible than stratospheric aerosol injection.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:042_39-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:042-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[39]</a></sup></p><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">This section is an excerpt from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">Passive daytime radiative cooling</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks" style="font-size: small; font-style: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling&action=edit" style="background: none !important; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration-line: none;">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); font-size: 13.16px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img class="thumbimage" data-file-height="828" data-file-width="630" decoding="async" height="289" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg/220px-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg/330px-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg/440px-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(200, 204, 209); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: 0px; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="float: right; margin-left: 3px; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="internal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_diagram.jpg" style="background: url("/w/resources/src/mediawiki.skinning/images/magnify-clip-ltr.svg?8330e"); color: #3366cc; display: block; height: 11px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: 15px; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: 15px;" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) can lower temperatures with zero energy consumption or pollution by radiating heat into outer space. Widespread application has been proposed as a solution to global warming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:5_40-0" style="font-size: 9.89632px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:5-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup></div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">Passive daytime radiative cooling</a> (PDRC) is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Renewable energy">renewable</a> cooling method proposed as a solution to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Global warming">global warming</a> of enhancing terrestrial <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_flow" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Heat flow">heat flow</a> to outer space through the installation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emissivity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Emissivity">thermally-emissive</a> surfaces on Earth that require zero <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Efficient energy use">energy consumption</a> or pollution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:5_40-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:5-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:023_41-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:023-41" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[41]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:18_42-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:18-42" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[42]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:372_43-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:372-43" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[43]</a></sup> Because all materials in nature absorb more heat during the day than at night, PDRC surfaces are designed to be high in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_reflectance" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar reflectance">solar reflectance</a> (to minimize heat gain) and strong in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-wave_infrared" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Long-wave infrared">longwave infrared</a> (LWIR) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Heat transfer">heat transfer</a> through the atmosphere's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_window" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Infrared window">infrared window</a> (8–13 µm) to cool temperatures during the daytime.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:41_44-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:41-44" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:1_45-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:1-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018_46-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[46]</a></sup> It is also referred to as passive radiative cooling (PRC), daytime passive radiative cooling (DPRC), radiative sky cooling (RSC), photonic radiative cooling, and terrestrial radiative cooling.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:1_45-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:1-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018_46-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Heo_2022_Ju_lee_47-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Heo_2022_Ju_lee-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:21_48-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:21-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[48]</a></sup> PDRC differs from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_geoengineering" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Solar geoengineering">solar radiation management</a> because it increases radiative heat emission rather than merely reflecting the absorption of solar radiation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Munday_49-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Munday-49" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[49]</a></sup></p>Some estimates propose that if 1–2% of the Earth's surface area were dedicated to PDRC that warming would cease and temperature increases would be rebalanced to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survivability" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Survivability">survivable</a> levels.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:032_50-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:032-50" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[50]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018_46-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[46]</a></sup> Regional variations provide different cooling potentials with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_climate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Desert climate">desert</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_climate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Temperate climate">temperate climates</a> benefiting more from application than <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_climate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tropical climate">tropical climates</a>, attributed to the effects of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Humidity">humidity</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_cover" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cloud cover">cloud cover</a> on reducing the effectiveness of PDRCs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:4_51-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:4-51" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:6_52-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:6-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:7_53-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:7-53" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[53]</a></sup> Low-cost scalable PDRC materials feasible for mass production have been developed, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coating" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coating">coatings</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_film" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Thin film">thin films</a>, metafabrics, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aerogel">aerogels</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Biodegradation">biodegradable</a> surfaces, to reduce <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_conditioning" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a>, lower <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_heat_island" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island effect</a>, cool human <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_temperature" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Body temperature">body temperatures</a> in extreme heat, and move toward <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon neutrality">carbon neutrality</a> as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-energy_building" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zero-energy building">zero-energy</a> cooling method.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:3_54-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:3-54" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[54]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:54_55-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:54-55" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[55]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:12222_56-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:12222-56" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[56]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:13_57-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:13-57" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[57]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:33_58-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:33-58" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[58]</a></sup></div></div><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Ocean_geoengineering">Ocean geoengineering</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Ocean geoengineering">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Sequestration_techniques_in_oceans" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Sequestration techniques in oceans</a></div><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: -0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Ocean geoengineering involves adding material such as lime or iron to the ocean to affect its ability to support marine life and/or sequester <span class="chemf nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">CO<span style="display: inline-block; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1em; margin-bottom: -0.3em; vertical-align: -0.4em;"><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"></span><br /><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span></span>. In 2021 the US <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine</a> (NASEM) requested $2.5 billion funds for research in the following decade, specifically including field tests.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_12-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:0-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Ocean_liming">Ocean liming</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Ocean liming">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Adding_bases_to_neutralize_acids" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Adding bases to neutralize acids</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Carbon_removal_technologies_which_add_alkalinity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification § Carbon removal technologies which add alkalinity</a></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Enriching seawater with calcium hydroxide (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_(material)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lime (material)">lime</a>) has been reported to lower <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidity</a>, which reduces pressure on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_life" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Marine life">marine life</a> such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oysters" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oysters">oysters</a> and absorb <span class="chemf nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">CO<span style="display: inline-block; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1em; margin-bottom: -0.3em; vertical-align: -0.4em;"><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"></span><br /><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span></span>. The added lime raised the water's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PH">pH</a>, capturing <span class="chemf nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">CO<span style="display: inline-block; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1em; margin-bottom: -0.3em; vertical-align: -0.4em;"><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"></span><br /><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span></span> in the form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_bicarbonate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Calcium bicarbonate">calcium bicarbonate</a> or as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> deposited in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusk" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mollusk">mollusk</a> shells. Lime is produced in volume for the cement industry.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_12-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:0-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup> This was assessed in 2022 in an experiment in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apalachicola,_Florida" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Apalachicola, Florida">Apalachicola, Florida</a> in an attempt to halt declining oyster populations. pH levels increased modestly, as <span class="chemf nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">CO<span style="display: inline-block; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1em; margin-bottom: -0.3em; vertical-align: -0.4em;"><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"></span><br /><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span></span> was reduced by 70 ppm.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_12-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:0-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A 2014 experiment added <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> (lye) to part of Australia's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>. It raised pH levels to nearly preindustrial levels.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_12-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:0-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">However, producing alkaline materials typically releases large amounts of <span class="chemf nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">CO<span style="display: inline-block; font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1em; margin-bottom: -0.3em; vertical-align: -0.4em;"><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"></span><br /><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span></span>, partially offsetting the sequestration. Alkaline additives become diluted and dispersed in one month, without durable effects, such that if necessary, the program could be ended without leaving long-term effects.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_12-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:0-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup></p><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Iron_fertilization">Iron fertilization</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Iron fertilization">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">This section is an excerpt from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_fertilization" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks" style="font-size: small; font-style: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iron_fertilization&action=edit" style="background: none !important; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration-line: none;">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_fertilization" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a> is the intentional introduction of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Iron">iron</a> to iron-poor areas of the ocean surface to stimulate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> production. This is intended to enhance <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productivity" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Primary productivity">biological productivity</a> and/or accelerate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon dioxide (CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span>) sequestration</a> from the atmosphere. Iron is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_element" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Trace element">trace element</a> necessary for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> in plants. It is highly <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insoluble" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Insoluble">insoluble</a> in <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_water" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sea water">sea water</a> and in a variety of locations is the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiting_nutrient" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Limiting nutrient">limiting nutrient</a> for phytoplankton growth. Large <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a> can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters. These blooms can nourish other organisms.</div></div><h4 style="color: black; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Submarine_forest">Submarine forest</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Submarine forest">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h4><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Another 2022 experiment attempted to sequester carbon using <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_kelp" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Giant kelp">giant kelp</a> planted off the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Namibia">Namibian</a> coast.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:0_12-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:0-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup> Whilst this approach has been called "ocean geoengineering" it is just another form of carbon dioxide removal via sequestration.</p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Issues">Issues</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Issues">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Vague_meaning_of_the_term">Vague meaning of the term</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Vague meaning of the term">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">According to climate economist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gernot_Wagner" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Gernot Wagner">Gernot Wagner</a> the term "geoengineering" is "largely an artefact and a result of the terms frequent use in popular discourse" and "so vague and all-encompassing as to have lost much meaning".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:04_8-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:04-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><span title="Page: 14">: 14 </span></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Moral_hazard_and_ethics">Moral hazard and ethics</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Moral hazard and ethics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Climate engineering may reduce the urgency of reducing carbon emissions,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Extreme_action_guardian2_59-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Extreme_action_guardian2-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[59]</a></sup> a form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_hazard" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Moral hazard">moral hazard</a>. However, several public opinion surveys and focus groups reported either desire to increase emission cuts in the presence of climate engineering, or of no effect.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-60" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-60" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[60]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-61" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[61]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-62" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[62]</a></sup> The Union of Concerned Scientists points to the danger that the technology will become an excuse not to address the root causes of climate change, slow our emissions reductions and start moving toward a low-carbon economy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-63" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[63]</a></sup> Other modelling work suggests that the prospect of climate engineering may in fact increase the likelihood of emissions reduction.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-64" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-64" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[64]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-65" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[65]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">If climate engineering can alter the climate then this raises questions whether humans have the right to deliberately change the climate, and under what conditions. For example, using climate engineering to stabilize temperatures is not the same as doing so to optimize the climate for some other purpose. Some religious traditions express views on the relationship between humans and their surroundings that encourage (to conduct responsible stewardship) or discourage (to avoid hubris) explicit actions to affect climate.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-66" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-66" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[66]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Opponents offer several objections:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_67-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:4-67" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[67]</a></sup> Climate engineering could reduce pressure for emissions reductions, which could exacerbate overall climate risks. Also, most efforts have only temporary effects, requiring ever-increasing interventions which imply rapid rebound if they are not sustained. Others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:4_67-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:4-67" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[67]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-68" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-68" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[68]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-69" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-69" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[69]</a></sup></p><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Hesitation">Hesitation</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Hesitation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h3><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Some environmental organizations (such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_of_the_Earth" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Friends of the Earth">Friends of the Earth</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenpeace" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a>) have been reluctant to endorse or oppose solar geoengineering, but are often more supportive of nature-based carbon dioxide removal projects, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afforestation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland_restoration" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Peatland restoration">peatland restoration</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Extreme_action_guardian2_59-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Extreme_action_guardian2-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[59]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Geoengineering_no_solution2_70-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Geoengineering_no_solution2-70" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[70]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Interventions at large scale run a greater risk of unintended disruptions of natural systems, resulting in a dilemma that they such disruptions might be more damaging than the climate damage that they offset.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-perspectives2_9-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-perspectives2-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[9]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Public_perception">Public perception</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: Public perception">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">A large 2018 study used an online survey to investigate public perceptions of six climate engineering methods in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:13_13-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:13-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> Public awareness of climate engineering was low; less than a fifth of respondents reported prior knowledge. Perceptions of the six climate engineering methods proposed (three from the carbon dioxide removal group and three from the solar geoengineering group) were largely negative and frequently associated with attributes like 'risky', 'artificial' and 'unknown effects'. Carbon dioxide removal methods were preferred over solar geoengineering. Public perceptions were remarkably stable with only minor differences between the different countries in the surveys.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:13_13-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:13-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-:22_71-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-:22-71" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[71]</a></sup></p><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=15" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">Several organizations have investigated climate engineering with a view to evaluating its potential, including the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Congress" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="US Congress">US Congress</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bullis2_72-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Bullis2-72" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[72]</a></sup> the US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-73" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-73" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[73]</a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-74" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-74" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[74]</a></sup> the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Parliament" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="UK Parliament">UK Parliament</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-75" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-75" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[75]</a></sup> the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution_of_Mechanical_Engineers" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Institution of Mechanical Engineers">Institution of Mechanical Engineers</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-imeche092_76-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-imeche092-76" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[76]</a></sup> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>. The IMechE report examined a small subset of proposed methods (air capture, urban albedo and algal-based CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> capture techniques), and its main conclusions were that climate engineering should be researched and trialed at the small scale alongside a wider <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decarbonization" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Decarbonization">decarbonization</a> of the economy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-imeche092_76-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-imeche092-76" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[76]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The Royal Society review examined a wide range of proposed climate engineering methods and evaluated them in terms of effectiveness, affordability, timeliness, and safety (assigning <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_data" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qualitative data">qualitative</a> estimates in each assessment). The key recommendations reports were that "Parties to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNFCCC" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="UNFCCC">UNFCCC</a> should make increased efforts towards mitigating and adapting to climate change, and in particular to agreeing to global emissions reductions", and that "[nothing] now known about geoengineering options gives any reason to diminish these efforts".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Royal_Society_Policy_Document2_77-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Royal_Society_Policy_Document2-77" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[77]</a></sup> Nonetheless, the report also recommended that "research and development of climate engineering options should be undertaken to investigate whether low-risk methods can be made available if it becomes necessary to reduce the rate of warming this century".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Royal_Society_Policy_Document2_77-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Royal_Society_Policy_Document2-77" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[77]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2009, a review examined the scientific plausibility of proposed methods rather than the practical considerations such as engineering feasibility or economic cost. The authors found that "[air] capture and storage shows the greatest potential, combined with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afforestation" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>, reforestation and bio-char production", and noted that "other suggestions that have received considerable media attention, in particular, "ocean pipes" appear to be ineffective".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-lenton092_78-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-lenton092-78" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[78]</a></sup> They concluded that "[climate] geoengineering is best considered as a potential complement to the mitigation of CO<span style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> emissions, rather than as an alternative to it".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-lenton092_78-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-lenton092-78" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[78]</a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">In 2015, the US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concluded a 21-month project to study the potential impacts, benefits, and costs of climate engineering. The differences between these two classes of climate engineering "led the committee to evaluate the two types of approaches separately in companion reports, a distinction it hopes carries over to future scientific and policy discussions."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-www8.nationalacademies.org2_79-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-www8.nationalacademies.org2-79" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[79]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Climate_Intervention2_80-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Climate_Intervention2-80" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[80]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-81" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-81" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[81]</a></sup> The resulting study titled <i>Climate Intervention</i> was released in February 2015 and consists of two volumes: <i>Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth</i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Council2_82-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Council2-82" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[82]</a></sup> and <i>Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-83" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-83" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[83]</a></sup> According to their brief about the study:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-nas-sites.org2_84-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-nas-sites.org2-84" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[84]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Council2_82-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_note-Council2-82" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[82]</a></sup></p><blockquote style="border-left: none; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 32px;"><p style="margin: 0px;">Climate intervention is no substitute for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions and adaptation efforts aimed at reducing the negative consequences of climate change. However, as our planet enters a period of changing climate never before experienced in recorded human history, interest is growing in the potential for deliberate intervention in the climate system to counter climate change... Carbon dioxide removal strategies address a key driver of climate change, but research is needed to fully assess if any of these technologies could be appropriate for large-scale deployment. Albedo modification strategies could rapidly cool the planet's surface but pose environmental and other risks that are not well understood and therefore should not be deployed at climate-altering scales; more research is needed to determine if albedo modification approaches could be viable in the future.</p></blockquote><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><ul aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright" role="navigation" style="background: rgb(249, 249, 249); border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; display: table; float: right; list-style: none; margin: 0.5em 0px 0.5em 1em; max-width: 175px; padding: 0.1em;"><li class="portalbox-entry" style="display: table-row; font-size: 11.9px; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; height: 1.9em; line-height: 13.09px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="portalbox-image" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="icon" class="noviewer" data-file-height="700" data-file-width="800" decoding="async" height="28" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/48px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/64px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="32" /></a></span><span class="portalbox-link" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Environment" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry" style="display: table-row; font-size: 11.9px; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; height: 1.9em; line-height: 13.09px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="portalbox-image" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="icon" class="noviewer" data-file-height="600" data-file-width="800" decoding="async" height="24" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/32px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/48px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/64px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="32" /></a></span><span class="portalbox-link" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Weather" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Portal:Weather">Weather portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry" style="display: table-row; font-size: 11.9px; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; height: 1.9em; line-height: 13.09px; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="portalbox-image" style="display: table-cell; padding: 0.2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="icon" class="noviewer" data-file-height="816" data-file-width="960" decoding="async" height="27" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/32px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/48px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/64px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_systems_engineering_and_management" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Earth systems engineering and management">Earth systems engineering and management</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoengineering_topics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="List of geoengineering topics">List of geoengineering topics</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_modification" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Weather modification">Weather modification</a></li></ul></div><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.375; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-right: 0.25em;">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_engineering&action=edit&section=17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: nowrap;" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #54595d; margin-left: 0.25em;">]</span></span></h2><div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12.6px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;"><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns" style="column-width: 30em; margin-top: 0.3em;"><ol class="references" style="counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-parent 0 mw-references 0 list-item 0; font-size: 12.6px; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;"><li id="cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1-1" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_1-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">IPCC (2022) <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter_01.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Chapter 1: Introduction and Framing</a> in <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA</span></li><li id="cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-2" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_2-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_2-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_2-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">IPCC, 2021: <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_AnnexVII.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Annex VII: Glossary</a> [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.</span></li><li id="cite_note-:022-3" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:022_3-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Academies_of_Sciences2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering (2021-03-25). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25762/reflecting-sunlight-recommendations-for-solar-geoengineering-research-and-research-governance" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Reflecting Sunlight: Recommendations for Solar Geoengineering Research and Research Governance</i></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F25762" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.17226/25762</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-67605-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-67605-2"><bdi>978-0-309-67605-2</bdi></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234327299" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">234327299</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417055338/https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25762/reflecting-sunlight-recommendations-for-solar-geoengineering-research-and-research-governance" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2021-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflecting+Sunlight%3A+Recommendations+for+Solar+Geoengineering+Research+and+Research+Governance&rft.date=2021-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234327299%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F25762&rft.isbn=978-0-309-67605-2&rft.aulast=National+Academies+of+Sciences&rft.aufirst=Engineering&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog%2F25762%2Freflecting-sunlight-recommendations-for-solar-geoengineering-research-and-research-governance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:023-4" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:023_4-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMunday2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Munday, Jeremy (2019). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Tackling Climate Change through Radiative Cooling"</a>. <i>Joule</i>. <b>3</b> (9): 2057–2060. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.joule.2019.07.010</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201590290" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">201590290</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Further, radiative cooling cannot be a complete, standalone solution, but rather is part of a more comprehensive approach that must include CO2 reduction. Otherwise, the radiative balance will not last long, and the potential financial benefits of mitigation will not fully be realized because of continued ocean acidification, air pollution, and redistribution of biomass.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Joule&rft.atitle=Tackling+Climate+Change+through+Radiative+Cooling&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2057-2060&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201590290%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Munday&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.joule.2019.07.010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:442-5" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:442_5-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:442_5-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFZevenhovenaFält2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Zevenhovena, Ron; Fält, Martin (June 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544218304936" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Radiative cooling through the atmospheric window: A third, less intrusive geoengineering approach"</a>. <i>Energy</i>. <b>152</b> – via Elsevier Science Direct. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">An alternative, third geoengineering approach would be enhanced cooling by thermal radiation from the Earth's surface into space.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy&rft.atitle=Radiative+cooling+through+the+atmospheric+window%3A+A+third%2C+less+intrusive+geoengineering+approach&rft.volume=152&rft.date=2018-06&rft.aulast=Zevenhovena&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft.au=F%C3%A4lt%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0360544218304936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:122222-6" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:122222_6-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWangWuShiHu2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wang, Tong; Wu, Yi; Shi, Lan; Hu, Xinhua; Chen, Min; Wu, Limin (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>12</b> (365): 365. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7809060</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33446648" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33446648</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">One possibly alternative approach is passive radiative cooling—a sky-facing surface on the Earth spontaneously cools by radiating heat to the ultracold outer space through the atmosphere's longwave infrared (LWIR) transparency window (λ ~ 8–13 μm).</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=A+structural+polymer+for+highly+efficient+all-day+passive+radiative+cooling&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=365&rft.pages=365&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33446648&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Tong&rft.au=Wu%2C+Yi&rft.au=Shi%2C+Lan&rft.au=Hu%2C+Xinhua&rft.au=Chen%2C+Min&rft.au=Wu%2C+Limin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:52-7" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:52_7-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFChenPangChenYan2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Chen, Meijie; Pang, Dan; Chen, Xingyu; Yan, Hongjie; Yang, Yuan (2022). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/eom2.12153" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, material designs, and applications"</a>. <i>EcoMat</i>. <b>4</b>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Feom2.12153" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1002/eom2.12153</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240331557" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">240331557</a>– via Wiley. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) dissipates terrestrial heat to the extremely cold outer space without using any energy input or producing pollution. It has the potential to simultaneously alleviate the two major problems of energy crisis and global warming.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EcoMat&rft.atitle=Passive+daytime+radiative+cooling%3A+Fundamentals%2C+material+designs%2C+and+applications&rft.volume=4&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Feom2.12153&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240331557%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Meijie&rft.au=Pang%2C+Dan&rft.au=Chen%2C+Xingyu&rft.au=Yan%2C+Hongjie&rft.au=Yang%2C+Yuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1002%2Feom2.12153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:04-8" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:04_8-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:04_8-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:04_8-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:04_8-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFGernot_Wagner2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Gernot Wagner (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://gwagner.com/books/geoengineering-the-gamble/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Geoengineering: the Gamble</i></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geoengineering%3A+the+Gamble&rft.date=2021&rft.au=Gernot+Wagner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgwagner.com%2Fbooks%2Fgeoengineering-the-gamble%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-perspectives2-9" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-perspectives2_9-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-perspectives2_9-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFMatthias_HoneggerAxel_MichaelowaSonja_Butzengeiger-Geyer2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Matthias Honegger; Axel Michaelowa; Sonja Butzengeiger-Geyer (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150906055338/https://www.fni.no/doc%26pdf/FNI-Climate-Policy-Perspectives-5.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Engineering – Avoiding Pandora's Box through Research and Governance</i></a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. FNI Climate Policy Perspectives. Fridtjof Nansen Institute (FNI), Perspectives. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://www.fni.no/doc&pdf/FNI-Climate-Policy-Perspectives-5.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> on 2015-09-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2018-10-09</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Engineering+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3B+Avoiding+Pandora%27s+Box+through+Research+and+Governance.&rft.series=FNI+Climate+Policy+Perspectives&rft.pub=Fridtjof+Nansen+Institute+%28FNI%29%2C+Perspectives&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Matthias+Honegger&rft.au=Axel+Michaelowa&rft.au=Sonja+Butzengeiger-Geyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fni.no%2Fdoc%26pdf%2FFNI-Climate-Policy-Perspectives-5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-10" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFZahra_Hirji2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Zahra Hirji (October 6, 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/04102016/climate-change-removing-carbon-dioxide-air-james-hansen-2-degrees-paris-climate-agreement-global-warming" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Removing CO2 From the Air Only Hope for Fixing Climate Change, New Study Says; Without 'negative emissions' to help return atmospheric CO<span style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1; vertical-align: -0.35em;">2</span> to 350 ppm, future generations could face costs that 'may become too heavy to bear,' paper says"</a>. <i>insideclimatenews.org</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InsideClimate_News" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="InsideClimate News">InsideClimate News</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191117214634/https://insideclimatenews.org/news/04102016/climate-change-removing-carbon-dioxide-air-james-hansen-2-degrees-paris-climate-agreement-global-warming" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on November 17, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">October 7,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=insideclimatenews.org&rft.atitle=Removing+CO2+From+the+Air+Only+Hope+for+Fixing+Climate+Change%2C+New+Study+Says%3B+Without+%27negative+emissions%27+to+help+return+atmospheric+CO%3Csub+style%3D%22font-size%3A+80%25%3Bvertical-align%3A+-0.35em%22%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+to+350+ppm%2C+future+generations+could+face+costs+that+%27may+become+too+heavy+to+bear%2C%27+paper+says.&rft.date=2016-10-06&rft.au=Zahra+Hirji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finsideclimatenews.org%2Fnews%2F04102016%2Fclimate-change-removing-carbon-dioxide-air-james-hansen-2-degrees-paris-climate-agreement-global-warming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-11" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFIPCC2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">IPCC (2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009157940/type/book" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Global Warming of 1.5°C: IPCC Special Report on impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels in context of strengthening response to climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty</i></a> (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009157940.008" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1017/9781009157940.008</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-15794-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-15794-0"><bdi>978-1-009-15794-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Warming+of+1.5%C2%B0C%3A+IPCC+Special+Report+on+impacts+of+global+warming+of+1.5%C2%B0C+above+pre-industrial+levels+in+context+of+strengthening+response+to+climate+change%2C+sustainable+development%2C+and+efforts+to+eradicate+poverty&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781009157940.008&rft.isbn=978-1-009-15794-0&rft.au=IPCC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2F9781009157940%2Ftype%2Fbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:0-12" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:0_12-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:0_12-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:0_12-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:0_12-3" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:0_12-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:0_12-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:0_12-6" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFVoosen2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Voosen, Paul (16 December 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/ocean-geoengineering-scheme-aces-its-first-field-test" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Ocean geoengineering scheme aces its first field test"</a>. <i>www.science.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2022-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.science.org&rft.atitle=Ocean+geoengineering+scheme+aces+its+first+field+test&rft.date=2022-12-16&rft.aulast=Voosen&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Focean-geoengineering-scheme-aces-its-first-field-test&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:13-13" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:13_13-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:13_13-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:13_13-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCarlisleFeethamWrightTeagle2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Carlisle, Daniel P.; Feetham, Pamela M.; Wright, Malcolm J.; Teagle, Damon A. H. (2020-04-12). <a class="external text" href="https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/440717/1/Thepublic_remain_uninformed.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"The public remain uninformed and wary of climate engineering"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Climatic Change</i>. <b>160</b> (2): 303–322. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020ClCh..160..303C" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2020ClCh..160..303C</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-020-02706-5" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10584-020-02706-5</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-1480" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1573-1480</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:215731777" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">215731777</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210614062101/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/440717/1/Thepublic_remain_uninformed.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2021-06-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2021-05-18</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climatic+Change&rft.atitle=The+public+remain+uninformed+and+wary+of+climate+engineering&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=303-322&rft.date=2020-04-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-020-02706-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A215731777%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1573-1480&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020ClCh..160..303C&rft.aulast=Carlisle&rft.aufirst=Daniel+P.&rft.au=Feetham%2C+Pamela+M.&rft.au=Wright%2C+Malcolm+J.&rft.au=Teagle%2C+Damon+A.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soton.ac.uk%2F440717%2F1%2FThepublic_remain_uninformed.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-DOI10.1038/ncomms1053-14" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-DOI10.1038/ncomms1053_14-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFDominic_WoolfJames_E._AmonetteF._Alayne_Street-PerrottJohannes_Lehmann2010" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Dominic Woolf; James E. Amonette; F. Alayne Street-Perrott; Johannes Lehmann; Stephen Joseph (August 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964457" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>1</b> (5): 56. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010NatCo...1...56W" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2010NatCo...1...56W</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms1053" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/ncomms1053</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2041-1723</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964457" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2964457</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20975722" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">20975722</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Sustainable+biochar+to+mitigate+global+climate+change&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=56&rft.date=2010-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2964457%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010NatCo...1...56W&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20975722&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fncomms1053&rft.issn=2041-1723&rft.au=Dominic+Woolf&rft.au=James+E.+Amonette&rft.au=F.+Alayne+Street-Perrott&rft.au=Johannes+Lehmann&rft.au=Stephen+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2964457&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Obersteiner2-15" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Obersteiner2_15-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFObersteiner2001" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Obersteiner, M. (2001). "Managing Climate Risk". <i>Science</i>. <b>294</b> (5543): 786–7. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.294.5543.786b" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1126/science.294.5543.786b</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11681318" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">11681318</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34722068" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">34722068</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Managing+Climate+Risk&rft.volume=294&rft.issue=5543&rft.pages=786-7&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34722068%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11681318&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.294.5543.786b&rft.aulast=Obersteiner&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-16" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-how-enhanced-weathering-could-slow-climate-change-and-boost-crop-yields" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Guest post: How 'enhanced weathering' could slow climate change and boost crop yields"</a>. <i>Carbon Brief</i>. 2018-02-19. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210908204350/https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-how-enhanced-weathering-could-slow-climate-change-and-boost-crop-yields" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2021-11-03</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Carbon+Brief&rft.atitle=Guest+post%3A+How+%27enhanced+weathering%27+could+slow+climate+change+and+boost+crop+yields&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.carbonbrief.org%2Fguest-post-how-enhanced-weathering-could-slow-climate-change-and-boost-crop-yields&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:1-17" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:1_17-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFCommittee_on_Geoengineering_Climate:_Technical_Evaluation_and_Discussion_of_ImpactsBoard_on_Atmospheric_Sciences_and_ClimateOcean_Studies_BoardDivision_on_Earth_and_Life_Studies2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Committee on Geoengineering Climate: Technical Evaluation and Discussion of Impacts; Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate; Ocean Studies Board; Division on Earth and Life Studies; National Research Council (2015). <a class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=18988" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Intervention: Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth</i></a>. National Academies Press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31482-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31482-4"><bdi>978-0-309-31482-4</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191214192318/http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=18988" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2016-10-21</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Intervention%3A+Reflecting+Sunlight+to+Cool+Earth&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-309-31482-4&rft.au=Committee+on+Geoengineering+Climate%3A+Technical+Evaluation+and+Discussion+of+Impacts&rft.au=Board+on+Atmospheric+Sciences+and+Climate&rft.au=Ocean+Studies+Board&rft.au=Division+on+Earth+and+Life+Studies&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Frecord_id%3D18988&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-18" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" id="CITEREFOberth1984" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Oberth, Hermann (1984) [1923]. <i>Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen</i> (in German). Michaels-Verlag Germany. pp. 87–88.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Rakete+zu+den+Planetenr%C3%A4umen&rft.pages=87-88&rft.pub=Michaels-Verlag+Germany&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Oberth&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-19" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFOberth1970" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Oberth, Hermann (1970) [1929]. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_19720008133" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>ways to spaceflight</i></a>. NASA. pp. 177–506<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">21 December</span> 2017</span> – via archiv.org.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ways+to+spaceflight&rft.pages=177-506&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Oberth&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnasa_techdoc_19720008133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-20" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" id="CITEREFOberth1957" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Oberth, Hermann (1957). <i>Menschen im Weltraum</i> (in German). Econ Duesseldorf Germany. pp. 125–182.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Menschen+im+Weltraum&rft.pages=125-182&rft.pub=Econ+Duesseldorf+Germany&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Oberth&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-21" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-21" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" id="CITEREFOberth1978" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Oberth, Hermann (1978). <i>Der Weltraumspiegel</i> (in German). Kriterion Bucharest.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Weltraumspiegel&rft.pub=Kriterion+Bucharest&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Oberth&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-22" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFKaufman2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kaufman, Rachel (August 8, 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/22202-space-mirrors-global-warming.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Could Space Mirrors Stop Global Warming?"</a>. <i>Live Science</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2019-11-08</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=Could+Space+Mirrors+Stop+Global+Warming%3F&rft.date=2012-08-08&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F22202-space-mirrors-global-warming.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:3-23" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:3_23-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSánchezMcInnes2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Sánchez, Joan-Pau; McInnes, Colin R. (2015-08-26). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4550401" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Optimal Sunshade Configurations for Space-Based Geoengineering near the Sun-Earth L1 Point"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>10</b> (8): e0136648. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1036648S" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2015PLoSO..1036648S</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0136648" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1371/journal.pone.0136648</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1932-6203</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4550401" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">4550401</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26309047" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">26309047</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Optimal+Sunshade+Configurations+for+Space-Based+Geoengineering+near+the+Sun-Earth+L1+Point&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e0136648&rft.date=2015-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4550401%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PLoSO..1036648S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26309047&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0136648&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1nchez&rft.aufirst=Joan-Pau&rft.au=McInnes%2C+Colin+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4550401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Crutzen062-24" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Crutzen062_24-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFCrutzen2006" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Crutzen, P. J. (2006). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-006-9101-y" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Albedo Enhancement by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: A Contribution to Resolve a Policy Dilemma?"</a>. <i>Climatic Change</i>. <b>77</b> (3–4): 211–220. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ClCh...77..211C" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2006ClCh...77..211C</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-006-9101-y" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10584-006-9101-y</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climatic+Change&rft.atitle=Albedo+Enhancement+by+Stratospheric+Sulfur+Injections%3A+A+Contribution+to+Resolve+a+Policy+Dilemma%3F&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=211-220&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-006-9101-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006ClCh...77..211C&rft.aulast=Crutzen&rft.aufirst=P.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10584-006-9101-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-25" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFLaboratory" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Laboratory, By Alan Buis, NASA's Jet Propulsion. <a class="external text" href="https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2927/examining-the-viability-of-planting-trees-to-help-mitigate-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Examining the Viability of Planting Trees to Help Mitigate Climate Change"</a>. <i>Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2023-04-13</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Climate+Change%3A+Vital+Signs+of+the+Planet&rft.atitle=Examining+the+Viability+of+Planting+Trees+to+Help+Mitigate+Climate+Change&rft.aulast=Laboratory&rft.aufirst=By+Alan+Buis%2C+NASA%27s+Jet+Propulsion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclimate.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2F2927%2Fexamining-the-viability-of-planting-trees-to-help-mitigate-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-26" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" id="CITEREFMarshall" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Marshall, Michael. <a class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200521-planting-trees-doesnt-always-help-with-climate-change" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Planting trees doesn't always help with climate change"</a>. <i>www.bbc.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2023-04-13</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.com&rft.atitle=Planting+trees+doesn%E2%80%99t+always+help+with+climate+change&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Ffuture%2Farticle%2F20200521-planting-trees-doesnt-always-help-with-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Carbon_dioxide_removal_IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-27" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Carbon_dioxide_removal_IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_27-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">IPCC, 2021: <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_AnnexVII.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Annex VII: Glossary</a> [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.</span></li><li id="cite_note-28" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFGeden2016" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Geden, Oliver (May 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2699" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"An actionable climate target"</a>. <i>Nature Geoscience</i>. <b>9</b> (5): 340–342. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatGe...9..340G" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2016NatGe...9..340G</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fngeo2699" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/ngeo2699</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1752-0908" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1752-0908</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210525174048/https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2699" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on May 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">March 7,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Geoscience&rft.atitle=An+actionable+climate+target&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=340-342&rft.date=2016-05&rft.issn=1752-0908&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fngeo2699&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatGe...9..340G&rft.aulast=Geden&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fngeo2699&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-29" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSchenuitColvinFridahlMcMullin2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Schenuit, Felix; Colvin, Rebecca; Fridahl, Mathias; McMullin, Barry; Reisinger, Andy; Sanchez, Daniel L.; Smith, Stephen M.; Torvanger, Asbjørn; Wreford, Anita; Geden, Oliver (2021-03-04). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffclim.2021.638805" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Carbon Dioxide Removal Policy in the Making: Assessing Developments in 9 OECD Cases"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Climate</i>. <b>3</b>: 638805. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffclim.2021.638805" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.3389/fclim.2021.638805</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2624-9553" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2624-9553</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Climate&rft.atitle=Carbon+Dioxide+Removal+Policy+in+the+Making%3A+Assessing+Developments+in+9+OECD+Cases&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=638805&rft.date=2021-03-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffclim.2021.638805&rft.issn=2624-9553&rft.aulast=Schenuit&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft.au=Colvin%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Fridahl%2C+Mathias&rft.au=McMullin%2C+Barry&rft.au=Reisinger%2C+Andy&rft.au=Sanchez%2C+Daniel+L.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Stephen+M.&rft.au=Torvanger%2C+Asbj%C3%B8rn&rft.au=Wreford%2C+Anita&rft.au=Geden%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffclim.2021.638805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Carbon_dioxide_removal_:82-30" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Carbon_dioxide_removal_:82_30-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFIPCC_AR6_WG32022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC">IPCC</a> (2022). Shukla, P.R.; Skea, J.; Slade, R.; Al Khourdajie, A.; et al. (eds.). <a class="external text" href="https://ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FullReport.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change</i></a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. Contribution of Working Group III to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">Sixth Assessment Report</a> of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press (In Press). <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009157926" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1017/9781009157926</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+2022%3A+Mitigation+of+Climate+Change&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK+and+New+York%2C+NY%2C+USA&rft.series=Contribution+of+Working+Group+III+to+the+Sixth+Assessment+Report+of+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+%28In+Press%29&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781009157926&rft.au=IPCC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg3%2Fdownloads%2Freport%2FIPCC_AR6_WGIII_FullReport.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-31" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Academies_of_Sciences2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering (2021-03-25). <a class="external text" href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/25762/reflecting-sunlight-recommendations-for-solar-geoengineering-research-and-research-governance" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Reflecting Sunlight: Recommendations for Solar Geoengineering Research and Research Governance</i></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F25762" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.17226/25762</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-67605-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-67605-2"><bdi>978-0-309-67605-2</bdi></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234327299" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">234327299</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflecting+Sunlight%3A+Recommendations+for+Solar+Geoengineering+Research+and+Research+Governance&rft.date=2021-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234327299%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F25762&rft.isbn=978-0-309-67605-2&rft.aulast=National+Academies+of+Sciences&rft.aufirst=Engineering&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnap.nationalacademies.org%2Fcatalog%2F25762%2Freflecting-sunlight-recommendations-for-solar-geoengineering-research-and-research-governance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Solar_geoengineering_:11-32" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_:11_32-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/policy/publications/2009/8693.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"The Royal Society"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>royalsociety.org</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150721043235/https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/policy/publications/2009/8693.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 21 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">18 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=royalsociety.org&rft.atitle=The+Royal+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2F~%2Fmedia%2FRoyal_Society_Content%2Fpolicy%2Fpublications%2F2009%2F8693.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Solar_geoengineering_IPCC_WGI_SRM-33" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_IPCC_WGI_SRM_33-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_IPCC_WGI_SRM_33-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFTrisosGedenSeneviratneSugiyama2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Trisos, Christopher H.; Geden, Oliver; Seneviratne, Sonia I.; Sugiyama, Masahiro; van Aalst, Maarten; Bala, Govindasamy; Mach, Katharine J.; Ginzburg, Veronika; de Coninck, Heleen; Patt, Anthony (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter16.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Cross-Working Group Box SRM: Solar Radiation Modification"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</i>. <b>2021</b>: 1238. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021AGUFM.U13B..05K" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2021AGUFM.U13B..05K</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009157896.007" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1017/9781009157896.007</a> (inactive 31 December 2022).</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climate+Change+2021%3A+The+Physical+Science+Basis.+Contribution+of+Working+Group+I+to+the+Sixth+Assessment+Report+of+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Cross-Working+Group+Box+SRM%3A+Solar+Radiation+Modification&rft.volume=2021&rft.pages=1238&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781009157896.007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021AGUFM.U13B..05K&rft.aulast=Trisos&rft.aufirst=Christopher+H.&rft.au=Geden%2C+Oliver&rft.au=Seneviratne%2C+Sonia+I.&rft.au=Sugiyama%2C+Masahiro&rft.au=van+Aalst%2C+Maarten&rft.au=Bala%2C+Govindasamy&rft.au=Mach%2C+Katharine+J.&rft.au=Ginzburg%2C+Veronika&rft.au=de+Coninck%2C+Heleen&rft.au=Patt%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg2%2Fdownloads%2Freport%2FIPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter16.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Solar_geoengineering_:1-34" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_:1_34-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFSmith2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Smith, Wake (October 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Faba7e7" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The cost of stratospheric aerosol injection through 2100"</a>. <i>Environmental Research Letters</i>. <b>15</b> (11): 114004. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020ERL....15k4004S" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2020ERL....15k4004S</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Faba7e7" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1088/1748-9326/aba7e7</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1748-9326" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1748-9326</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225534263" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">225534263</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=The+cost+of+stratospheric+aerosol+injection+through+2100&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=114004&rft.date=2020-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Faba7e7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225534263%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1748-9326&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020ERL....15k4004S&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Wake&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1748-9326%252Faba7e7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Solar_geoengineering_Climate_Intervention2-35" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Solar_geoengineering_Climate_Intervention2_35-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Research Council (2017). <i>Climate Intervention: Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth</i>. The National Academies Press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F18988" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.17226/18988</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31482-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31482-4"><bdi>978-0-309-31482-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Intervention%3A+Reflecting+Sunlight+to+Cool+Earth&rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F18988&rft.isbn=978-0-309-31482-4&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span> Ebook: <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31485-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31485-5">978-0-309-31485-5</a>.</span></li><li id="cite_note-36" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFRobockMarquardtKravitzStenchikov2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Robock, Alan; Marquardt, Allison; Kravitz, Ben; Stenchikov, Georgiy (2009). <a class="external text" href="http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/2009GL039209.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Benefits, risks, and costs of stratospheric geoengineering"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i>. <b>36</b> (19): L19703. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009GeoRL..3619703R" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2009GeoRL..3619703R</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2009GL039209" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1029/2009GL039209</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10754%2F552099" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10754/552099</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Benefits%2C+risks%2C+and+costs+of+stratospheric+geoengineering&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=L19703&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10754%2F552099&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2009GL039209&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009GeoRL..3619703R&rft.aulast=Robock&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Marquardt%2C+Allison&rft.au=Kravitz%2C+Ben&rft.au=Stenchikov%2C+Georgiy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclimate.envsci.rutgers.edu%2Fpdf%2F2009GL039209.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-37" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFGriegerFelgenhauerRennWiener2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Grieger, Khara D.; Felgenhauer, Tyler; Renn, Ortwin; Wiener, Jonathan; Borsuk, Mark (30 April 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10669-019-09730-6" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Emerging risk governance for stratospheric aerosol injection as a climate management technology"</a>. <i>Environment Systems and Decisions</i>. <b>39</b>: 371–382. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10669-019-09730-6" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10669-019-09730-6</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environment+Systems+and+Decisions&rft.atitle=Emerging+risk+governance+for+stratospheric+aerosol+injection+as+a+climate+management+technology&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=371-382&rft.date=2019-04-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10669-019-09730-6&rft.aulast=Grieger&rft.aufirst=Khara+D.&rft.au=Felgenhauer%2C+Tyler&rft.au=Renn%2C+Ortwin&rft.au=Wiener%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Borsuk%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs10669-019-09730-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:12222-38" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:12222_38-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWangWuShiHu2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wang, Tong; Wu, Yi; Shi, Lan; Hu, Xinhua; Chen, Min; Wu, Limin (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>12</b> (365): 365. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7809060</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33446648" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33446648</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">One possibly alternative approach is passive radiative cooling—a sky-facing surface on the Earth spontaneously cools by radiating heat to the ultracold outer space through the atmosphere's longwave infrared (LWIR) transparency window (λ ~ 8–13 μm).</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=A+structural+polymer+for+highly+efficient+all-day+passive+radiative+cooling&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=365&rft.pages=365&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33446648&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Tong&rft.au=Wu%2C+Yi&rft.au=Shi%2C+Lan&rft.au=Hu%2C+Xinhua&rft.au=Chen%2C+Min&rft.au=Wu%2C+Limin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:042-39" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:042_39-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMunday2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Munday, Jeremy (2019). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Tackling Climate Change through Radiative Cooling"</a>. <i>Joule</i>. <b>3</b> (9): 2057–2060. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.joule.2019.07.010</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201590290" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">201590290</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">A reduction in solar absorption is usually proposed through the injection of reflective aerosols into the atmosphere; however, serious concerns have been raised regarding side effects of these forms of geoengineering and our ability to undo any of the climatic changes we create.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Joule&rft.atitle=Tackling+Climate+Change+through+Radiative+Cooling&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2057-2060&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201590290%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Munday&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.joule.2019.07.010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:5-40" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:5_40-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:5_40-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFChenPangChenYan2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Chen, Meijie; Pang, Dan; Chen, Xingyu; Yan, Hongjie; Yang, Yuan (2022). <a class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/eom2.12153" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, material designs, and applications"</a>. <i>EcoMat</i>. <b>4</b>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Feom2.12153" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1002/eom2.12153</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240331557" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">240331557</a> – via Wiley. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) dissipates terrestrial heat to the extremely cold outer space without using any energy input or producing pollution. It has the potential to simultaneously alleviate the two major problems of energy crisis and global warming.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EcoMat&rft.atitle=Passive+daytime+radiative+cooling%3A+Fundamentals%2C+material+designs%2C+and+applications&rft.volume=4&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Feom2.12153&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240331557%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Meijie&rft.au=Pang%2C+Dan&rft.au=Chen%2C+Xingyu&rft.au=Yan%2C+Hongjie&rft.au=Yang%2C+Yuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1002%2Feom2.12153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:023-41" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:023_41-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMunday2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Munday, Jeremy (2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S254243511930354X" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Tackling Climate Change through Radiative Cooling"</a>. <i>Joule</i>. <b>3</b> (9): 2057–2060. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.joule.2019.07.010</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201590290" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">201590290</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220222090634/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S254243511930354X" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2022-09-27</span></span> – via ScienceDirect. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">By covering the Earth with a small fraction of thermally emitting materials, the heat flow away from the Earth can be increased, and the net radiative flux can be reduced to zero (or even made negative), thus stabilizing (or cooling) the Earth.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Joule&rft.atitle=Tackling+Climate+Change+through+Radiative+Cooling&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2057-2060&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201590290%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Munday&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS254243511930354X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:18-42" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:18_42-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFYinYangTanFan2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Yin, Xiaobo; Yang, Ronggui; Tan, Gang; Fan, Shanhui (November 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.abb0971" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Terrestrial radiative cooling: Using the cold universe as a renewable and sustainable energy source"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>370</b> (6518): 786–791. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Sci...370..786Y" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2020Sci...370..786Y</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abb0971" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1126/science.abb0971</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33184205" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33184205</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226308213" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">226308213</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">...terrestrial radiative cooling has emerged as a promising solution for mitigating urban heat islands and for potentially fighting against global warming if it can be implemented at a large scale.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Terrestrial+radiative+cooling%3A+Using+the+cold+universe+as+a+renewable+and+sustainable+energy+source&rft.volume=370&rft.issue=6518&rft.pages=786-791&rft.date=2020-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abb0971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226308213%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33184205&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Sci...370..786Y&rft.aulast=Yin&rft.aufirst=Xiaobo&rft.au=Yang%2C+Ronggui&rft.au=Tan%2C+Gang&rft.au=Fan%2C+Shanhui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abb0971&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:372-43" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:372_43-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFBijarniyaSarkarMaiti2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Bijarniya, Jay Prakash; Sarkar, Jahar; Maiti, Pralay (November 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032120305529" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Review on passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, recent researches, challenges and opportunities"</a>. <i>Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews</i>. <b>133</b>: 110263. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.2020.110263" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.rser.2020.110263</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224874019" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">224874019</a> – via Elsevier Science Direct. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Passive radiative cooling can be considered as a renewable energy source, which can pump heat to cold space and make the devices more efficient than ejecting heat at earth atmospheric temperature.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renewable+and+Sustainable+Energy+Reviews&rft.atitle=Review+on+passive+daytime+radiative+cooling%3A+Fundamentals%2C+recent+researches%2C+challenges+and+opportunities&rft.volume=133&rft.pages=110263&rft.date=2020-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.rser.2020.110263&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224874019%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bijarniya&rft.aufirst=Jay+Prakash&rft.au=Sarkar%2C+Jahar&rft.au=Maiti%2C+Pralay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS1364032120305529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:41-44" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:41_44-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/energy-conservation-us/applications/passive-radiative-cooling/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"What is 3M Passive Radiative Cooling?"</a>. <i>3M</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210922171222/https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/energy-conservation-us/applications/passive-radiative-cooling/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2022-09-27</span></span>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Passive Radiative Cooling is a natural phenomenon that only occurs at night in nature because all nature materials absorb more solar energy during the day than they are able to radiate to the sky.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=3M&rft.atitle=What+is+3M+Passive+Radiative+Cooling%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.3m.com%2F3M%2Fen_US%2Fenergy-conservation-us%2Fapplications%2Fpassive-radiative-cooling%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:1-45" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:1_45-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:1_45-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWangWuShiHu2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wang, Tong; Wu, Yi; Shi, Lan; Hu, Xinhua; Chen, Min; Wu, Limin (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>12</b> (365): 365. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7809060</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33446648" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33446648</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">Accordingly, designing and fabricating efficient PDRC with sufficiently high solar reflectance (𝜌¯solar) (λ ~ 0.3–2.5 μm) to minimize solar heat gain and simultaneously strong LWIR thermal emittance (ε¯LWIR) to maximize radiative heat loss is highly desirable. When the incoming radiative heat from the Sun is balanced by the outgoing radiative heat emission, the temperature of the Earth can reach its steady state.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=A+structural+polymer+for+highly+efficient+all-day+passive+radiative+cooling&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=365&rft.pages=365&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33446648&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Tong&rft.au=Wu%2C+Yi&rft.au=Shi%2C+Lan&rft.au=Hu%2C+Xinhua&rft.au=Chen%2C+Min&rft.au=Wu%2C+Limin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018-46" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018_46-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018_46-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Zeven_2018_46-2" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFZevenhovenaFält2018" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Zevenhovena, Ron; Fält, Martin (June 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544218304936" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Radiative cooling through the atmospheric window: A third, less intrusive geoengineering approach"</a>. <i>Energy</i>. <b>152</b> – via Elsevier Science Direct. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">An alternative, third geoengineering approach would be enhanced cooling by thermal radiation from the Earth's surface into space." [...] "With 100 W/m2 as a demonstrated passive cooling effect, a surface coverage of 0.3% would then be needed, or 1% of Earth's land mass surface. If half of it would be installed in urban, built areas which cover roughly 3% of the Earth's land mass, a 17% coverage would be needed there, with the remainder being installed in rural areas.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy&rft.atitle=Radiative+cooling+through+the+atmospheric+window%3A+A+third%2C+less+intrusive+geoengineering+approach&rft.volume=152&rft.date=2018-06&rft.aulast=Zevenhovena&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft.au=F%C3%A4lt%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0360544218304936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Heo_2022_Ju_lee-47" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Heo_2022_Ju_lee_47-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFHeoJu_LeeSong2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Heo, Se-Yeon; Ju Lee, Gil; Song, Young Min (June 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2022/tc/d2tc00318j" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Heat-shedding with photonic structures: radiative cooling and its potential"</a>. <i>Journal of Materials Chemistry C</i>. <b>10</b> (27): 9915–9937. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FD2TC00318J" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1039/D2TC00318J</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249695930" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">249695930</a> – via Royal Society of Chemistry.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Materials+Chemistry+C&rft.atitle=Heat-shedding+with+photonic+structures%3A+radiative+cooling+and+its+potential&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=9915-9937&rft.date=2022-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2FD2TC00318J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249695930%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Heo&rft.aufirst=Se-Yeon&rft.au=Ju+Lee%2C+Gil&rft.au=Song%2C+Young+Min&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.rsc.org%2Fen%2Fcontent%2Farticlelanding%2F2022%2Ftc%2Fd2tc00318j&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:21-48" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:21_48-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFAiliYinYang2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Aili, Ablimit; Yin, Xiaobo; Yang, Ronggui (October 2021). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fatmos12111379" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Global Radiative Sky Cooling Potential Adjusted for Population Density and Cooling Demand"</a>. <i>Atmosphere</i>. <b>12</b> (11): 1379. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fatmos12111379" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.3390/atmos12111379</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmosphere&rft.atitle=Global+Radiative+Sky+Cooling+Potential+Adjusted+for+Population+Density+and+Cooling+Demand&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1379&rft.date=2021-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fatmos12111379&rft.aulast=Aili&rft.aufirst=Ablimit&rft.au=Yin%2C+Xiaobo&rft.au=Yang%2C+Ronggui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fatmos12111379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Munday-49" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_Munday_49-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMunday2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Munday, Jeremy (2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S254243511930354X" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Tackling Climate Change through Radiative Cooling"</a>. <i>Joule</i>. <b>3</b> (9): 2057–2060. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.joule.2019.07.010</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201590290" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">201590290</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220222090634/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S254243511930354X" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2022-09-27</span></span> – via ScienceDirect.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Joule&rft.atitle=Tackling+Climate+Change+through+Radiative+Cooling&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2057-2060&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201590290%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Munday&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS254243511930354X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:032-50" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:032_50-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMunday2019" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Munday, Jeremy (2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S254243511930354X" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Tackling Climate Change through Radiative Cooling"</a>. <i>Joule</i>. <b>3</b> (9): 2057–2060. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.joule.2019.07.010</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201590290" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">201590290</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220222090634/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S254243511930354X" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2022-09-27</span></span> – via ScienceDirect. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">If only 1%–2% of the Earth's surface were instead made to radiate at this rate rather than its current average value, the total heat fluxes into and away from the entire Earth would be balanced and warming would cease.</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Joule&rft.atitle=Tackling+Climate+Change+through+Radiative+Cooling&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2057-2060&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joule.2019.07.010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201590290%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Munday&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS254243511930354X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:4-51" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:4_51-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFHanFeiLiNg2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Han, Di; Fei, Jipeng; Li, Hong; Ng, Bing Feng (August 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360132322005169" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The criteria to achieving sub-ambient radiative cooling and its limits in tropical daytime"</a>. <i>Building and Environment</i>. <b>221</b> (1): 109281. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; 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counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:6_52-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFHuangLinLiHuang2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Huang, Jingyuan; Lin, Chongjia; Li, Yang; Huang, Baoling (May 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0017931021015362#fig0010" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">245805048</a> – via Elsevier Science Direct.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Heat+and+Mass+Transfer&rft.atitle=Effects+of+humidity%2C+aerosol%2C+and+cloud+on+subambient+radiative+cooling&rft.volume=186&rft.pages=122438&rft.date=2022-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.122438&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245805048%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Jingyuan&rft.au=Lin%2C+Chongjia&rft.au=Li%2C+Yang&rft.au=Huang%2C+Baoling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0017931021015362%23fig0010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:7-53" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:7_53-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLiuZhangZhangJiao2020" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Liu, Junwei; Zhang, Ji; Zhang, Debao; Jiao, Shifei; Xing, Jingcheng; Tang, Huajie; Zhang, Ying; Li, Shuai; Zhou, Zhihua; Zuo, Jian (September 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032120302264" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">219911962</a> – via Elsevier Science Direct.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renewable+and+Sustainable+Energy+Reviews&rft.atitle=Sub-ambient+radiative+cooling+with+wind+cover&rft.volume=130&rft.pages=109935&rft.date=2020-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.rser.2020.109935&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219911962%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Junwei&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Ji&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Debao&rft.au=Jiao%2C+Shifei&rft.au=Xing%2C+Jingcheng&rft.au=Tang%2C+Huajie&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Ying&rft.au=Li%2C+Shuai&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Zhihua&rft.au=Zuo%2C+Jian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS1364032120302264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:3-54" style="break-inside: avoid-column; 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color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Feom2.12153" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1002/eom2.12153</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240331557" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">240331557</a>– via Wiley.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EcoMat&rft.atitle=Passive+daytime+radiative+cooling%3A+Fundamentals%2C+material+designs%2C+and+applications&rft.volume=4&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Feom2.12153&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240331557%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Meijie&rft.au=Pang%2C+Dan&rft.au=Chen%2C+Xingyu&rft.au=Yan%2C+Hongjie&rft.au=Yang%2C+Yuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1002%2Feom2.12153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:12222-56" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:12222_56-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWangWuShiHu2021" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wang, Tong; Wu, Yi; Shi, Lan; Hu, Xinhua; Chen, Min; Wu, Limin (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>12</b> (365): 365. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">7809060</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33446648" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">33446648</a>. <q style="quotes: "\"" "\"" "'" "'";">One possibly alternative approach is passive radiative cooling—a sky-facing surface on the Earth spontaneously cools by radiating heat to the ultracold outer space through the atmosphere's longwave infrared (LWIR) transparency window (λ ~ 8–13 μm).</q></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=A+structural+polymer+for+highly+efficient+all-day+passive+radiative+cooling&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=365&rft.pages=365&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33446648&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Tong&rft.au=Wu%2C+Yi&rft.au=Shi%2C+Lan&rft.au=Hu%2C+Xinhua&rft.au=Chen%2C+Min&rft.au=Wu%2C+Limin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:13-57" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:13_57-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFKhanCarlosenaFengKhorat2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Khan, Ansar; Carlosena, Laura; Feng, Jie; Khorat, Samiran; Khatun, Rupali; Doan, Quang-Van; Santamouris, Mattheos (January 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/3/1110" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Optically Modulated Passive Broadband Daytime Radiative Cooling Materials Can Cool Cities in Summer and Heat Cities in Winter"</a>. <i>Sustainability</i>. <b>14</b> – via MDPI.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sustainability&rft.atitle=Optically+Modulated+Passive+Broadband+Daytime+Radiative+Cooling+Materials+Can+Cool+Cities+in+Summer+and+Heat+Cities+in+Winter&rft.volume=14&rft.date=2022-01&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=Ansar&rft.au=Carlosena%2C+Laura&rft.au=Feng%2C+Jie&rft.au=Khorat%2C+Samiran&rft.au=Khatun%2C+Rupali&rft.au=Doan%2C+Quang-Van&rft.au=Santamouris%2C+Mattheos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F2071-1050%2F14%2F3%2F1110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:33-58" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling_:33_58-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLiangWuGuoLi2022" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Liang, Jun; Wu, Jiawei; Guo, Jun; Li, Huagen; Zhou, Xianjun; Liang, Sheng; Qiu, Cheng-Wei; Tao, Guangming (September 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/nsr/advance-article/doi/10.1093/nsr/nwac208/6731794" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Radiative cooling for passive thermal management towards sustainable carbon neutrality"</a>. <i>National Science Review</i>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fnsr%2Fnwac208" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1093/nsr/nwac208</a></span> – via Oxford Academic.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Radiative+cooling+for+passive+thermal+management+towards+sustainable+carbon+neutrality&rft.date=2022-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fnsr%2Fnwac208&rft.aulast=Liang&rft.aufirst=Jun&rft.au=Wu%2C+Jiawei&rft.au=Guo%2C+Jun&rft.au=Li%2C+Huagen&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Xianjun&rft.au=Liang%2C+Sheng&rft.au=Qiu%2C+Cheng-Wei&rft.au=Tao%2C+Guangming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fnsr%2Fadvance-article%2Fdoi%2F10.1093%2Fnsr%2Fnwac208%2F6731794&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Extreme_action_guardian2-59" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Extreme_action_guardian2_59-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Extreme_action_guardian2_59-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFAdam2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Adam, David (1 September 2008). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/sep/01/climatechange.scienceofclimatechange2" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Extreme and risky action the only way to tackle global warming, say scientists"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190806230902/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/sep/01/climatechange.scienceofclimatechange2" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a>from the original on 2019-08-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2009-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Extreme+and+risky+action+the+only+way+to+tackle+global+warming%2C+say+scientists&rft.date=2008-09-01&rft.aulast=Adam&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2008%2Fsep%2F01%2Fclimatechange.scienceofclimatechange2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-60" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-60" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFKahanJenkins-SmithTarantolaSilva2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Kahan, Dan M.; Jenkins-Smith, Hank; Tarantola, Tor; Silva, Carol L.; Braman, Donald (2015-03-01). "Geoengineering and Climate Change Polarization Testing a Two-Channel Model of Science Communication". <i>The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>. <b>658</b> (1): 192–222. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002716214559002" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0002716214559002</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7162" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0002-7162</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149147565" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">149147565</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Annals+of+the+American+Academy+of+Political+and+Social+Science&rft.atitle=Geoengineering+and+Climate+Change+Polarization+Testing+a+Two-Channel+Model+of+Science+Communication&rft.volume=658&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=192-222&rft.date=2015-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149147565%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0002-7162&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0002716214559002&rft.aulast=Kahan&rft.aufirst=Dan+M.&rft.au=Jenkins-Smith%2C+Hank&rft.au=Tarantola%2C+Tor&rft.au=Silva%2C+Carol+L.&rft.au=Braman%2C+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-61" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFWibeckHanssonAnshelm2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Wibeck, Victoria; Hansson, Anders; Anshelm, Jonas (2015-05-01). <a class="external text" href="http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-119732" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Questioning the technological fix to climate change – Lay sense-making of geoengineering in Sweden"</a>. <i>Energy Research & Social Science</i>. <b>7</b>: 23–30. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.erss.2015.03.001" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.erss.2015.03.001</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+Research+%26+Social+Science&rft.atitle=Questioning+the+technological+fix+to+climate+change+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3B+Lay+sense-making+of+geoengineering+in+Sweden&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=23-30&rft.date=2015-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.erss.2015.03.001&rft.aulast=Wibeck&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft.au=Hansson%2C+Anders&rft.au=Anshelm%2C+Jonas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Furn.kb.se%2Fresolve%3Furn%3Durn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Aliu%3Adiva-119732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-62" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-62" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMerkPönitzschKniebesRehdanz2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Merk, Christine; Pönitzsch, Gert; Kniebes, Carola; Rehdanz, Katrin; Schmidt, Ulrich (2015-02-10). "Exploring public perceptions of stratospheric sulfate injection". <i>Climatic Change</i>. <b>130</b> (2): 299–312. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ClCh..130..299M" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2015ClCh..130..299M</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10584-014-1317-7" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10584-014-1317-7</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0165-0009" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">0165-0009</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154196324" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">154196324</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climatic+Change&rft.atitle=Exploring+public+perceptions+of+stratospheric+sulfate+injection&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=299-312&rft.date=2015-02-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10584-014-1317-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154196324%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0165-0009&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015ClCh..130..299M&rft.aulast=Merk&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft.au=P%C3%B6nitzsch%2C+Gert&rft.au=Kniebes%2C+Carola&rft.au=Rehdanz%2C+Katrin&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+Ulrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-63" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/what-solar-geoengineering" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"What Is Solar Geoengineering?"</a>. <i>The Union of Concerned Scientists</i>. Dec 4, 2020.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Union+of+Concerned+Scientists&rft.atitle=What+Is+Solar+Geoengineering%3F&rft.date=2020-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucsusa.org%2Fresources%2Fwhat-solar-geoengineering&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-64" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-64" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFUrpelainen2012" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Urpelainen, Johannes (2012-02-10). "Geoengineering and global warming: a strategic perspective". <i>International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics</i>. <b>12</b> (4): 375–389. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10784-012-9167-0" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1007/s10784-012-9167-0</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1567-9764" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1567-9764</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154422202" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">154422202</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Environmental+Agreements%3A+Politics%2C+Law+and+Economics&rft.atitle=Geoengineering+and+global+warming%3A+a+strategic+perspective&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=375-389&rft.date=2012-02-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154422202%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1567-9764&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10784-012-9167-0&rft.aulast=Urpelainen&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-65" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-65" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMoreno-Cruz2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Moreno-Cruz, Juan B. (2015-08-01). "Mitigation and the geoengineering threat". <i>Resource and Energy Economics</i>. <b>41</b>: 248–263. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.reseneeco.2015.06.001" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1016/j.reseneeco.2015.06.001</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1853%2F44254" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1853/44254</a></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Resource+and+Energy+Economics&rft.atitle=Mitigation+and+the+geoengineering+threat&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=248-263&rft.date=2015-08-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1853%2F44254&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.reseneeco.2015.06.001&rft.aulast=Moreno-Cruz&rft.aufirst=Juan+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-66" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-66" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFClingermanO'Brien2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Clingerman, F.; O'Brien, K. (2014). "Playing God: why religion belongs in the climate engineering debate". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></i>. <b>70</b> (3): 27–37. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014BuAtS..70c..27C" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2014BuAtS..70c..27C</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0096340214531181" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/0096340214531181</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143742343" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">143742343</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=Playing+God%3A+why+religion+belongs+in+the+climate+engineering+debate&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=27-37&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143742343%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0096340214531181&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014BuAtS..70c..27C&rft.aulast=Clingerman&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=O%27Brien%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-:4-67" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:4_67-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-:4_67-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091203132630/http://www.irgc.org/geoengineering" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Geoengineering"</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Risk_Governance_Council" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="International Risk Governance Council">International Risk Governance Council</a>. 2009. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.irgc.org/geoengineering" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 2009-12-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2009-10-07</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Geoengineering&rft.pub=International+Risk+Governance+Council&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irgc.org%2Fgeoengineering&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-68" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-68" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFReynolds2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Reynolds, Jesse (2015-08-01). "A critical examination of the climate engineering moral hazard and risk compensation concern". <i>The Anthropocene Review</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 174–191. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2053019614554304" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1177/2053019614554304</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2053-0196" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2053-0196</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59407485" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">59407485</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Anthropocene+Review&rft.atitle=A+critical+examination+of+the+climate+engineering+moral+hazard+and+risk+compensation+concern&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=174-191&rft.date=2015-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59407485%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2053-0196&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2053019614554304&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Jesse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-69" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-69" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFMorrow2014" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Morrow, David R. (2014-12-28). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2014.0062" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Ethical aspects of the mitigation obstruction argument against climate engineering research"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences</i>. <b>372</b> (2031): 20140062. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014RSPTA.37240062M" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2014RSPTA.37240062M</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2014.0062" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1098/rsta.2014.0062</a></span>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1364-503X" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1364-503X</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25404676" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">25404676</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London+A%3A+Mathematical%2C+Physical+and+Engineering+Sciences&rft.atitle=Ethical+aspects+of+the+mitigation+obstruction+argument+against+climate+engineering+research&rft.volume=372&rft.issue=2031&rft.pages=20140062&rft.date=2014-12-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.2014.0062&rft.issn=1364-503X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25404676&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014RSPTA.37240062M&rft.aulast=Morrow&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsta.2014.0062&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Geoengineering_no_solution2-70" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Geoengineering_no_solution2_70-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1" id="CITEREFParr2008" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Parr, Doug (1 September 2008). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/sep/01/climatechange.scienceofclimatechange1" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Geo-engineering is no solution to climate change"</a>. <i>Guardian Newspaper</i>. London. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180820234933/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/sep/01/climatechange.scienceofclimatechange1" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-08-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(February 2014). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2087" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"A quantitative evaluation of the public response to climate engineering"</a>. <i>Nature Climate Change</i>. <b>4</b> (2): 106–110. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014NatCC...4..106W" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2014NatCC...4..106W</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnclimate2087" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.1038/nclimate2087</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1758-6798" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">1758-6798</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728153000/https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2087" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-07-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">14 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stop+emitting+CO2+or+geoengineering+could+be+our+only+hope&rft.pub=The+Royal+Society&rft.date=2009-08-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2FStop-emitting-CO2-or-geoengineering-could-be-our-only-hope%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-75" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-75" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/POST-PN-327/POST-PN-327.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">"Geo-engineering research"</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Postnote</i>. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2022-09-11</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Postnote&rft.atitle=Geo-engineering+research&rft.date=2009-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearchbriefings.files.parliament.uk%2Fdocuments%2FPOST-PN-327%2FPOST-PN-327.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-imeche092-76" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-imeche092_76-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-imeche092_76-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722191723/http://www.imeche.org/Libraries/Key_Themes/IMechEGeoengineeringReport.sflb.ashx" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Geo-engineering – Giving us the time to act?"</a>. I Mech E. Archived from <a class="external text" href="http://www.imeche.org/Libraries/Key_Themes/IMechEGeoengineeringReport.sflb.ashx" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">the original</a> on 2011-07-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2011-03-12</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Geo-engineering+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3B+Giving+us+the+time+to+act%3F&rft.pub=I+Mech+E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imeche.org%2FLibraries%2FKey_Themes%2FIMechEGeoengineeringReport.sflb.ashx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Royal_Society_Policy_Document2-77" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Royal_Society_Policy_Document2_77-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Royal_Society_Policy_Document2_77-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation report cs1" id="CITEREFWorking_group2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Working group (2009). <a class="external text" href="http://royalsociety.org/uploadedFiles/Royal_Society_Content/policy/publications/2009/8693.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Geoengineering the Climate: Science, Governance and Uncertainty</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> (Report). London: The Royal Society. p. 1. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85403-773-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85403-773-5"><bdi>978-0-85403-773-5</bdi></a>. RS1636. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140312031514/http://royalsociety.org/uploadedfiles/royal_society_content/policy/publications/2009/8693.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Icon_pdf_file.png") right center no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 8px 18px 8px 0px; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format" style="font-size: 11.97px;">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2014-03-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2011-12-01</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Geoengineering+the+Climate%3A+Science%2C+Governance+and+Uncertainty&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=The+Royal+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-85403-773-5&rft.au=Working+group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2FuploadedFiles%2FRoyal_Society_Content%2Fpolicy%2Fpublications%2F2009%2F8693.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-lenton092-78" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-lenton092_78-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-lenton092_78-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1" id="CITEREFLentonVaughan,_N.E.2009" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">Lenton, T.M.; Vaughan, N.E. (2009). <a class="external text" href="http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/9/5539/2009/acp-9-5539-2009.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"The radiative forcing potential of different climate geoengineering options"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_Chemistry_and_Physics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics">Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics</a></i>. <b>9</b> (15): 5539–5561. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ACP.....9.5539L" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">2009ACP.....9.5539L</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Facp-9-5539-2009" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg") right 0.1em center / 9px no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.5194/acp-9-5539-2009</a></span>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191214043800/https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/9/5539/2009/acp-9-5539-2009.html" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2009-09-04</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmospheric+Chemistry+and+Physics&rft.atitle=The+radiative+forcing+potential+of+different+climate+geoengineering+options&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=5539-5561&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Facp-9-5539-2009&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009ACP.....9.5539L&rft.aulast=Lenton&rft.aufirst=T.M.&rft.au=Vaughan%2C+N.E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atmos-chem-phys.net%2F9%2F5539%2F2009%2Facp-9-5539-2009.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-www8.nationalacademies.org2-79" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-www8.nationalacademies.org2_79-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;"><a class="external text" href="http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=02102015" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Intervention Is Not a Replacement for Reducing Carbon Emissions; Proposed Intervention Techniques Not Ready for Wide-Scale Deployment"</a>. <i>NEWS from the national academies</i> (Press release). Feb 10, 2015. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032144/http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=02102015" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-11-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2015-11-24</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Climate+Intervention+Is+Not+a+Replacement+for+Reducing+Carbon+Emissions%3B+Proposed+Intervention+Techniques+Not+Ready+for+Wide-Scale+Deployment&rft.date=2015-02-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww8.nationalacademies.org%2Fonpinews%2Fnewsitem.aspx%3FRecordID%3D02102015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Climate_Intervention2-80" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Climate_Intervention2_80-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council2017" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Research Council (2017). <i>Climate Intervention: Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth</i>. The National Academies Press. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F18988" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.17226/18988</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31482-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31482-4"><bdi>978-0-309-31482-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Intervention%3A+Reflecting+Sunlight+to+Cool+Earth&rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F18988&rft.isbn=978-0-309-31482-4&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span> Ebook: <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31485-5" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31485-5">978-0-309-31485-5</a>.</span></li><li id="cite_note-81" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-81" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Research Council (2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18805/climate-intervention-carbon-dioxide-removal-and-reliable-sequestration" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Intervention: Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration</i></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F18805" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">10.17226/18805</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-30529-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-30529-7"><bdi>978-0-309-30529-7</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180821031740/https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18805/climate-intervention-carbon-dioxide-removal-and-reliable-sequestration" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2018-08-20</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Intervention%3A+Carbon+Dioxide+Removal+and+Reliable+Sequestration&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F18805&rft.isbn=978-0-309-30529-7&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog%2F18805%2Fclimate-intervention-carbon-dioxide-removal-and-reliable-sequestration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-Council2-82" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;">^ <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Council2_82-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="border: 0px !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; top: -99999px; user-select: none; width: 1px !important;">Jump up to:</span><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-Council2_82-1" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;"><sup style="font-size: 10.08px; line-height: 1;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Research Council (2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18988/climate-intervention-reflecting-sunlight-to-cool-earth" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Intervention: Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth</i></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31482-4" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-31482-4"><bdi>978-0-309-31482-4</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191214192318/http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=18988" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2018-08-20</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Intervention%3A+Reflecting+Sunlight+to+Cool+Earth&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-309-31482-4&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog%2F18988%2Fclimate-intervention-reflecting-sunlight-to-cool-earth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-83" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-83" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1" id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council2015" style="font-style: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word;">National Research Council (2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18805/climate-intervention-carbon-dioxide-removal-and-reliable-sequestration" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;"><i>Climate Intervention: Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration</i></a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-30529-7" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-30529-7"><bdi>978-0-309-30529-7</bdi></a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180821031740/https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18805/climate-intervention-carbon-dioxide-removal-and-reliable-sequestration" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-08-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2018-08-20</span></span>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Intervention%3A+Carbon+Dioxide+Removal+and+Reliable+Sequestration&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-309-30529-7&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog%2F18805%2Fclimate-intervention-carbon-dioxide-removal-and-reliable-sequestration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimate+engineering"></span></span></li><li id="cite_note-nas-sites.org2-84" style="break-inside: avoid-column; counter-increment: mw-ref-extends-parent 1 mw-references 1; counter-reset: mw-ref-extends-child 0; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink" style="user-select: none;"><b><a aria-label="Jump up" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#cite_ref-nas-sites.org2_84-0" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://nas-sites.org/americasclimatechoices/other-reports-on-climate-change/2015-2/climate-intervention-reports/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">"Climate Intervention Reports » Climate Change at the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine"</a>. <i>nas-sites.org</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160729015758/http://nas-sites.org/americasclimatechoices/other-reports-on-climate-change/2015-2/climate-intervention-reports/" rel="nofollow" style="background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?30a3a") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-07-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;">2015-09-02</span></span>.</span></li></ol></div></div></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-89614391962684535482023-04-13T05:49:00.000-07:002023-04-13T05:49:17.341-07:00Real-Time Economy funded by the European Union<p> <a data-action="loadview" data-frame="app-module" data-path="/channels/public/www/prh/en/index" data-reload="app-header" href="https://www.prh.fi/en/index.html" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem; text-decoration: var(--link-decoration);">Front page</a><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem;"> </span><a data-action="loadview" data-frame="app-module" data-path="/channels/public/www/prh/en/index/presentation_and_duties" data-reload="app-header" href="https://www.prh.fi/en/presentation_and_duties.html" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem; text-decoration: var(--link-decoration);">About us</a><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem;"> </span><a data-action="loadview" data-frame="app-module" data-path="/channels/public/www/prh/en/index/presentation_and_duties/current_information_about_prh" data-reload="app-header" href="https://www.prh.fi/en/presentation_and_duties/current_information.html" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem; text-decoration: var(--link-decoration);">Current information</a><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem;"> </span><a data-action="loadview" data-frame="app-module" data-path="/channels/public/www/prh/en/index/presentation_and_duties/current_information_about_prh/projects" data-reload="app-header" href="https://www.prh.fi/en/presentation_and_duties/current_information/projects.html" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem; text-decoration: var(--link-decoration);">Projects</a><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem;"> </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem;">Real-Time Economy</span></p><p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.18rem;">What follows here is a clear presentation of an important project. Unlike Transfinancial Economics ofcourse it does not go far enough. R. Searle/blogger</span></p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"></span><main id="content" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; padding-bottom: 4rem;"><prh-paaotsikko class="statoelement prh-paaotsikko" id="idR3GHzkox2" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><h1 autofocus="" class="fagoweb-bold" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--headings-color); font-family: FagoWebPro-CondBold, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 3.5rem; font-weight: var(--headings-font-weight); line-height: var(--headings-line-height); margin: 3.5rem 0px 2rem;">Real-Time Economy</h1></prh-paaotsikko><prh-sisaltosivu-sisalto class="statoelement statocomponent prh-sisaltosivu-sisalto contenteditor is-connected" component="true" data-listenerpath=",null,/editable," element="prh/sisaltosivu/sisalto" id="idR3GVYX9lc" nativecomponent="true" staticcomponent="true" stato-resolved="true" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="content-editor block" style="--block-spacing-half: 6px; --block-spacing: 12px; --link-decoration: underline; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin: 15px 0px 2rem; padding-bottom: 1rem; position: relative;"><prh-sisaltosivu-sisalto-teksti class="statoelement prh-sisaltosivu-sisalto-teksti" id="idR3I9sinmO" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: block; font-size: 1.4rem;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">The Real-Time Economy project is set up by the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment of Finland. The goal of the project is to create the conditions for a digital economy.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">The project will run from 2021 to 2024. The work done in the project will build a foundation for developing the digital economy further.<br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" /><br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" />The Finnish Patent and Registration Office (PRH) is implementing the project in collaboration with the Finnish Tax Administration and the State Treasury. The other authorities participating in the project are the Digital and Population Data Services Agency and Statistics Finland. In addition, a large number of private organisations are involved in the project.<br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" /><br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" />The Real-Time Economy project is a part of Finland's Sustainable Growth Programme. The budget of the project is covered from the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility from the beginning of 2021.</p><h2 id="whatisdigitaleconomy" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--headings-color); font-family: FagoWebPro-CondBold, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 2.2rem; font-weight: var(--headings-font-weight); line-height: 1.2; margin: 2rem 0px;">What is digital economy?</h2><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">The digital economy is a system where all business transactions are based on digital, structured (machine-readable) information and processing.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">In a digital economy, all services are online and able to talk to each other. Key business data moves entirely electronically and in real time – even to the authorities. When companies’ business data is processed automatically, they save time and money. Companies can also control their own data and use it more effectively their businesses.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">The vision of the project is to create a national digital ecosystem for businesses that is compatible with the other Nordic countries. The system will enable online invoices, e-receipts and business data to flow automatically, securely and in real time between parties.</p><h2 id="theprojectcoordinatesthenordicsmartgovernmentandbusinessworkinfinland" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--headings-color); font-family: FagoWebPro-CondBold, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 2.2rem; font-weight: var(--headings-font-weight); line-height: 1.2; margin: 2rem 0px;">The project coordinates the Nordic Smart Government and Business work in Finland</h2><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">The RTE project is also coordinating the implementation of the Nordic Smart Government and Business (NSG&B) project in Finland and representing Finland in the NSG&B collaboration.<br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" /><br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" />NSG&B is a project run by the Nordic trade registers to enhance the automation and use of financial data between businesses and from businesses to the authorities. <a href="https://www.prh.fi/en/presentation_and_duties/current_information/projects/nordic_smart_government.html" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">Read more about the NSG&B project.</a></p><h2 id="newsabouttheproject" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--headings-color); font-family: FagoWebPro-CondBold, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 2.2rem; font-weight: var(--headings-font-weight); line-height: 1.2; margin: 2rem 0px;">News about the project</h2><h3 id="informationaboutgoalsandresultscompiledontheprojectwebsiteyrityksendigitalousfi" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--headings-color); font-family: FagoWebPro-Medium, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.6rem; font-weight: var(--headings-font-weight); line-height: 1.2; margin: 2rem 0px;">Information about goals and results compiled on the project website yrityksendigitalous.fi</h3><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">The project website compiles the most important information about the goals and results and guides forward in the changes of the interoperable digital economy. Also follow the news, blogs and event calendar and subscribe to the project's newsletters (in Finnish). <a href="https://www.yrityksendigitalous.fi/en/" rel="noopener" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">Check out the RTE project website.<span class="sr-only" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip-path: inset(50%); clip: rect(0px, 0px, 0px, 0px); font-size: 1.4rem; height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; white-space: nowrap; width: 1px;">Open link in a new tab</span></a><br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" /></p><h3 fullpath="/channels/admin/www/prh/en/index/presentation_and_duties/current_information_about_prh/projects/real-time_economy/Stato.CardMeta/Workspace/Work/CONTENT/prh.tekstialue_2/prh.otsikko.h1" id="directorselectedfortherealtimeeconomyproject11august2021" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--headings-color); font-family: FagoWebPro-Medium, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.6rem; font-weight: var(--headings-font-weight); line-height: 1.2; margin: 2rem 0px;">Director selected for the Real-Time Economy project (11 August 2021)</h3><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">Minna Rintala was selected as the Project Director for the Real-Time Economy project coordinated by the Finnish Patent and Registration Office (PRH). <a href="https://www.prh.fi/en/uutislistaus/2021/P_23889.html" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">Read more in our announcement on 11 August 2021.</a><br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" /></p><h3 fullpath="/channels/admin/www/prh/en/index/presentation_and_duties/current_information_about_prh/projects/real-time_economy/Stato.CardMeta/Workspace/Work/CONTENT/prh.tekstialue_5/prh.otsikko.h1" id="finlandaimstobecomeapioneerinthedigitaleconomyby2030therealtimeeconomyprojectpromotesdigitalisation15june2021" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--headings-color); font-family: FagoWebPro-Medium, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.6rem; font-weight: var(--headings-font-weight); line-height: 1.2; margin: 2rem 0px;">Finland aims to become a pioneer in the digital economy by 2030: the Real-Time Economy project promotes digitalisation (15 June 2021)<br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4rem;" /></h3><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment of Finland (MEAE) has set up the Real-Time Economy project, which will run from 2021 to 2024. <a href="https://www.prh.fi/en/uutislistaus/2021/P_23600.html" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">Read more in our announcement on 15 June 2021.</a><br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" /></p><h3 fullpath="/channels/admin/www/prh/en/index/presentation_and_duties/current_information_about_prh/projects/real-time_economy/Stato.CardMeta/Workspace/Work/CONTENT/prh.tekstialue_3/prh.otsikko.h1" id="therealtimeeconomybriefingroom8june2021" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--headings-color); font-family: FagoWebPro-Medium, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.6rem; font-weight: var(--headings-font-weight); line-height: 1.2; margin: 2rem 0px;">The real-time economy briefing room (8 June 2021)</h3><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">The objectives of the RTE project are presented in the real-time economy briefing room webinar on 8 June 2021. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flNj3a8VRs0&list=PLTSxsSRl7QAGolcIM-Tyabn2kVQN9kTy3&index=3" rel="noopener" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">Watch the recorded webinar (in Finnish) on Finnish Tax Administration's YouTube channel.<span class="sr-only" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip-path: inset(50%); clip: rect(0px, 0px, 0px, 0px); font-size: 1.4rem; height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; white-space: nowrap; width: 1px;">Open link in a new tab</span></a><br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" /></p><h2 id="moreinformation" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--headings-color); font-family: FagoWebPro-CondBold, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 2.2rem; font-weight: var(--headings-font-weight); line-height: 1.2; margin: 2rem 0px;">More information</h2><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;"><a href="https://www.yrityksendigitalous.fi/en/" rel="noopener" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">Read more about the RTE project. <span class="sr-only" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip-path: inset(50%); clip: rect(0px, 0px, 0px, 0px); font-size: 1.4rem; height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; white-space: nowrap; width: 1px;">Open link in a new tab</span></a><br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" /></p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-bottom: 1.6rem; margin-top: 0px; overflow-wrap: anywhere;">Project Director<br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" />Ms. Minna Rintala<br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" />Finnish Patent and Registration Office (PRH)<br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" />Tel. +358 29 509 5244<br style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem;" />firstname.lastname@prh.fi</p><div class="content__column content__image__wrapper block--auto statoelement" data-src="/material/sites/prh/images/tietoaprhsta/NXEi485R8/EU_disclaimer_kestavakasvu_EN_black.png" owner="idR3KgJctGm" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; height: auto; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 2.5rem; width: auto !important;"><img alt="Funded by the European Union" class="content__image image-loading" owner="idR3KgJctGm" sizes="50w,150w,400w,800w,1280w,1920w" src="https://www.prh.fi/material/sites/prh/images/tietoaprhsta/NXEi485R8/EU_disclaimer_kestavakasvu_EN_black.png" style="backface-visibility: hidden; border-style: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; max-width: 100%; overflow: hidden; transform: translateZ(0px); vertical-align: middle;" title="" /></div></prh-sisaltosivu-sisalto-teksti></div><div class="content-editor block" style="--block-spacing-half: 6px; --block-spacing: 12px; --link-decoration: underline; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; font-size: 1.4rem; margin: 1rem 0px 2rem; padding-bottom: 1rem; position: relative;"><prh-sisaltosivu-sisalto-teksti class="statoelement prh-sisaltosivu-sisalto-teksti" id="idR3Kw09JmW" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: block; font-size: 1.4rem;"></prh-sisaltosivu-sisalto-teksti></div></prh-sisaltosivu-sisalto><div class="row" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; margin-left: calc(var(--grid-gutter-width) / -2); margin-right: calc(var(--grid-gutter-width) / -2);"><div class="col-sm-12 col-md-6" style="box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 50%; max-width: 50%; min-height: 1px; padding-left: calc(var(--grid-gutter-width) / 2); padding-right: calc(var(--grid-gutter-width) / 2); position: relative; width: 345.094px;"></div><div class="col-sm-12 col-md-6" style="box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 50%; max-width: 50%; min-height: 1px; padding-left: calc(var(--grid-gutter-width) / 2); padding-right: calc(var(--grid-gutter-width) / 2); position: relative; width: 345.094px;"></div></div><prh-paivitystieto class="statoelement prh-paivitystieto" id="idR3LA8f0Zg" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.4rem; margin-top: auto;"><div class="paivitystieto d-flex flex-column align-items-end" style="align-items: flex-end !important; box-sizing: border-box; display: flex !important; flex-direction: column !important;"><a class="prh-link d-print-none" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--link-color); font-weight: 600; text-decoration: var(--link-decoration);">Printable version</a><span style="box-sizing: border-box;">Latest update 09.03.2023</span></div></prh-paivitystieto></main>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-29201562954409229562023-04-13T05:33:00.003-07:002023-04-13T05:36:45.027-07:00The Real-Time Revolution and Digital Economics in the COVID Era<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><header class="pw-post-byline-header eu ev ew ex ey ez fa fb fc fd l" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.8); font-family: medium-content-sans-serif-font, -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Oxygen, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", sans-serif; font-size: 13.524px; margin-bottom: 32px; margin-top: 56px;"><div class="ab fe ff" style="align-items: flex-start; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; justify-content: space-between;"><div class="ab" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: flex;"><div class="dq l" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin-right: 16px;"><a class="ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as" href="https://medium.com/@shrutib?source=post_page-----ed3eb927a3d4--------------------------------" rel="noopener follow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; border: inherit; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; fill: inherit; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none;"><div class="l di" style="box-sizing: inherit; position: relative;"><div class="dr bw l fg fh ds n aw dt" style="border-radius: 50%; border: none; box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05) 0px 0px 0px 1px inset; box-sizing: inherit; height: 48px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 48px;"></div></div></a></div><div class="l" style="box-sizing: inherit;"><div class="pw-author bd b fi fj bi" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px;"><div class="fk ab q" style="align-items: center; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; margin-bottom: 4px;"><div style="box-sizing: inherit;"><div aria-describedby="1" aria-hidden="false" aria-labelledby="1" class="bk" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: inline-block;"><a class="ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as" href="https://medium.com/@shrutib?source=post_page-----ed3eb927a3d4--------------------------------" rel="noopener follow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; border: inherit; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; fill: inherit; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none;"><div class="ab q" style="align-items: center; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex;">Shruti</div></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ab q gf" style="align-items: center; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap;"><p class="pw-published-date bd b be z dx" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #757575; font-family: sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit;">Mar 3, 2022</span></p><div aria-hidden="true" class="gg bk" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: inline-block; padding: 0px 8px;"><span aria-hidden="true" class="l" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: block;"><span class="bd b be z dx" face="sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #757575; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">·</span></span></div><div class="pw-reading-time bd b be z dx" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #757575; font-family: sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">6 min read</div><div aria-hidden="true" class="gg bk" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: inline-block; padding: 0px 8px;"><span aria-hidden="true" class="l" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: block;"><span class="bd b be z dx" face="sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #757575; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">·</span></span></div><div class="de abb q" style="align-items: center; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-flex;"><div class="l ad" style="box-sizing: inherit; flex: 1 0 auto;"><div class="ab cl" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; justify-content: center;"><div class="yw yx yy yz za kc dk bf" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; min-width: 0px; width: 57.0938px;"><div class="ab" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: flex;"><div aria-hidden="false" class="bk bf" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: inline-block; width: 57.0938px;"><button class="al mb aw ab q abc abd abe" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; align-items: center; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-style: none; border-width: initial; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; display: flex; flex-shrink: 0; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px;"><svg class="dv abf abg abh" fill="none" height="16" viewbox="0 0 16 16" width="16"><path d="M8 0a8 8 0 1 0 0 16A8 8 0 0 0 8 0zm2.8 8.51l-3.69 2.46a.62.62 0 0 1-.96-.5V5.53a.62.62 0 0 1 .96-.51l3.7 2.46a.62.62 0 0 1 0 1.02z" fill="#292929"></path></svg><p class="bd b be z abi" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #668aaa; font-family: sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px;">Listen</p></button></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></header><section style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.8); font-family: medium-content-sans-serif-font, -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Oxygen, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", sans-serif; font-size: 13.524px;"><div style="box-sizing: inherit;"><div class="ha hb hc hd he" style="box-sizing: inherit; overflow-wrap: break-word; word-break: break-word;"><div style="box-sizing: inherit;"><h2 class="pw-subtitle-paragraph ie hg hh bd b if ig ih ii ij ik il im in io ip iq ir is it iu iv dx" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="6761" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #757575; font-family: sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 22px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: 0px; line-height: 28px; margin: 0.79em 0px -0.42em; position: relative;">Driven by COVID, economists are finally embracing streaming and real-time data — just like the business world</h2></div><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="bf20" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">By Shruti Bhat, CPO and SVP Marketing, Rockset</p><figure class="jt ju jv jw fd jx er es paragraph-image" style="box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; margin: 56px auto 0px;"><div class="jy jz di ka bf kb" role="button" style="box-sizing: inherit; cursor: zoom-in; position: relative; transition: transform 300ms cubic-bezier(0.2, 0, 0.2, 1) 0s; width: 680px; z-index: auto;" tabindex="0"><div class="er es js" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; max-width: 4195px;"><br /></div></div><figcaption class="ke kf et er es kg kh bd b be z dx" data-selectable-paragraph="" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #757575; font-family: sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 10px; max-width: 728px; text-align: center;">Photo by <a class="ae ki" href="https://unsplash.com/@sortino?utm_source=unsplash&utm_medium=referral&utm_content=creditCopyText" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">Joshua Sortino</a> on <a class="ae ki" href="https://unsplash.com/s/photos/data-analytics?utm_source=unsplash&utm_medium=referral&utm_content=creditCopyText" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">Unsplash</a></figcaption></figure><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="cede" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">Out of all the awfulness created by the COVID-19 global pandemic, a few <a class="ae ki" href="https://www.predictiveindex.com/blog/covid-19-silver-linings/" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">unexpected silver linings</a> have emerged. One of them is in the field of economics, which in the past year has quietly undergone a revolution, a revolution that mirrors one that is happening in the business world.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="1a04" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">To an outsider, economics is a field dominated by numbers and statistics. However, as the Economist magazine pointed out in its recent cover story, <a class="ae ki" href="https://www.economist.com/leaders/2021/10/23/a-real-time-revolution-will-up-end-the-practice-of-macroeconomics" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">“Instant Economics: The Real-Time Revolution,”</a> there has long been a startling shortage of timely data and statistics in the actual practice of economics — especially its most-critical and glamorous speciality, economic forecasting.</p><figure class="jt ju jv jw fd jx" style="box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; margin: 56px 0px 0px;"><div class="bz dy l di" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: auto; overflow: hidden; position: relative;"><div class="aci kk l" style="box-sizing: inherit; height: 0px; padding-bottom: 825px;"><span face="source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;">Governments use macroeconomic forecasts to guide their policymaking. Will another interest rate cut jumpstart a flagging economy? How much unemployment will result from raising the minimum wage to X dollars per hour?</span><span face="source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;">Prior to the 20th century, classical economists — think Adam Smith or Thomas Malthus — created grand, unified theories. However, data was so scarce and spotty that their treatises read more like philosophy than modern economics. More than half of the economics papers published in the 1970s lacked </span><em class="kl" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;">any</em><span face="source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;"> numerical data, according to the Economist. Even today, key statistics such as national GDP or unemployment rates take weeks and months to collect, revise, and finalize. More complex figures such as productivity rates take even longer</span><span face="source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;">That time frame is ok for economics professors, but too slow for policymakers. The problem remains two-fold: official government statistics take too long to emerge, especially in crises, and the levers at the disposal of policymakers are too blunt and slow.</span><span face="source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;">“Traditional government statistics weren’t really all that helpful — by the time they came out, the data were stale,” a former U.S. assistant treasury secretary told the Economist.</span><span face="source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;">Faced with this data dilemma, some economists retreat back to theory and ideology. Supply siders pushed for cutting taxes and regulations, while demand-siders argued for higher taxes and government spending.</span><span face="source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;">Others mined real-time indicators such as stock and bond market prices. While these have the virtue of mining the wisdom of crowds, they are also vulnerable to a whole set of accuracy-reducing factors: market manipulation, unwarranted investor confidence or panic, issues particular to one company or industry, etc.</span><span face="sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 22px; letter-spacing: 0px;">Stale Data Costs Trillions of Dollars</span><span face="source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;">“It is only a slight exaggeration to say that central banks are flying blind,” wrote the Economist. As a result, “bad and late data can lead to policy errors that cost millions of jobs and trillions of dollars in lost output.”</span><span face="source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif" style="color: #292929; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em;">And that’s exactly what happened during the 2008 recession. As TV talking heads referred to stale economic data showing everything was A-OK, housing prices plummeted, foreclosures skyrocketed, and the economy tanked. Banks were too big to fail, until they suddenly weren’t. The lack of reliable, fresh data led to bad policy decisions that worsened the recession.</span></div></div></figure><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="a655" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">When COVID-19 hit, a new wave of economists and policymakers were determined to avoid the mistakes of 2008.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="a32b" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">“Without the time to wait for official surveys to reveal the effects of the virus or lockdowns, governments and central banks have experimented, tracking mobile phones, contactless payments, and the real-time use of aircraft engines,” wrote the Economist. “Instead of locking themselves in their studies for years writing the next ‘General Theory,’ today’s star economists, such as Raj Chetty at Harvard University, run well-staffed labs that crunch numbers.” If Netflix knows exactly which shows are trending, why can’t policy-makers get a better pulse of the economy as things unfold?</p><h1 class="km kn hh bd ko kp kq kr ks kt ku kv kw in kx io ky iq kz ir la it lb iu lc ld bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="ea81" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 22px; letter-spacing: 0px; line-height: 28px; margin: 3.14em 0px -0.37em; position: relative;">Fresher Analytics for Faster Actions</h1><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz le ii jb jc lf il je jf lg jh ji jj lh jl jm jn li jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="8816" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 0.86em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">Where is this new wave of economists getting these data sets?</p><ul style="box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.4; list-style: none none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li class="lj lk hh iy b iz ja jc jd jf ll jj lm jn ln jr lo lp lq lr bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="11c0" style="border: none; box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 28px; list-style-type: disc; margin: 2.14em 0px -0.46em 30px; padding: 0px;">From JPMorgan Chase, which <a class="ae ki" href="https://www.jpmorganchase.com/institute/research/covid-19-research" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">according to the Economist</a> “opened up treasure chests of data on bank balances and credit-card bills, helping reveal whether people are spending cash or hoarding it.”</li><li class="lj lk hh iy b iz ls jc lt jf lu jj lv jn lw jr lo lp lq lr bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="77ea" style="border: none; box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 28px; list-style-type: disc; margin: 1.14em 0px -0.46em 30px; padding: 0px;">From Google, which released <a class="ae ki" href="https://www.google.com/covid19/mobility/" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">daily data of anonymized</a> Android mobile phone users’ locations, allowing researchers to produce daily measures of the severity of lockdowns</li><li class="lj lk hh iy b iz ls jc lt jf lu jj lv jn lw jr lo lp lq lr bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="df6b" style="border: none; box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 28px; list-style-type: disc; margin: 1.14em 0px -0.46em 30px; padding: 0px;">From OpenTable.com, which published <a class="ae ki" href="https://www.opentable.com/state-of-industry" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">daily and historic data on restaurant reservations and diners</a></li><li class="lj lk hh iy b iz ls jc lt jf lu jj lv jn lw jr lo lp lq lr bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="ce49" style="border: none; box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 28px; list-style-type: disc; margin: 1.14em 0px -0.46em 30px; padding: 0px;">From work scheduling SaaS provider Homebase, whose daily employment data was used by the <a class="ae ki" href="https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/review/2021/08/16/assessing-labor-market-conditions-using-high-frequency-data" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">Federal Reserve to track changes in employment levels</a></li><li class="lj lk hh iy b iz ls jc lt jf lu jj lv jn lw jr lo lp lq lr bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="dbb9" style="border: none; box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 28px; list-style-type: disc; margin: 1.14em 0px -0.46em 30px; padding: 0px;">Even government agencies got into the act, with the U.S. Census Bureau starting to release weekly survey data around employment and rents, giving more economists fresh insights into consumer confidence.</li></ul><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="ff45" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">Fresher analytics means faster actions. The first analysis of the effect of America’s $600 stimulus checks was published in mere weeks. Within a month, the UK government confirmed that a policy to bring customers back to restaurants also increased the number of COVID infections. Economists confirmed the large number of workers taking their jobs on the road in part from <a class="ae ki" href="https://www.workandmoney.com/s/van-life-facts-61aa4310594e4dfa" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">social media posts</a> embracing <a class="ae ki" href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/vanlife" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">#vanlife</a>.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="0d08" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">“The age of bewilderment is starting to give way to a greater enlightenment,” declared the Economist.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="ca04" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">And that has led to targeted, quickly-deployed economic policies. The American stimulus bill included special support for restaurants due in part to the OpenTable.com data. In Hong Kong, the government is sending cash electronically to the digital wallets of its citizens, cash that will expire if not spent by a certain date. Using analytics, similar instant cash handouts can be automatically sent out to poor people who have lost their jobs without the need for them to file any paperwork. Or loans could be instantly offered to businesses that are determined to be low bankruptcy risks.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="89a3" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">Contrast that with broad-based monetary policies such as interest rate cuts, which take multiple quarters to take full effect, have many unintended side effects, and can lead to major victories — or be massive misses.</p><h1 class="km kn hh bd ko kp kq kr ks kt ku kv kw in kx io ky iq kz ir la it lb iu lc ld bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="7f04" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: sohne, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 22px; letter-spacing: 0px; line-height: 28px; margin: 3.14em 0px -0.37em; position: relative;">Digital Economics for More Accurate, Transparent Policies</h1><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz le ii jb jc lf il je jf lg jh ji jj lh jl jm jn li jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="841f" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 0.86em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">Economists and government policymakers haven’t caught up to cutting-edge businesses that have made the transformation into digital enterprises. Data latency is the most obvious area. To ensure data reliability and quality, Google, OpenTable and others are still publishing their datasets overnight, rather than pumping out live streams.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="cf7a" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">But more live and real-time sources of data are emerging. India recorded 25.6 billion real-time electronic payments last year. IoT sensors are being fitted to machines and objects at <a class="ae ki" href="https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/sensors-iot-market-26520972.html" rel="noopener ugc nofollow" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #cc3300; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">a fast rate</a>. And more than 50 countries, including China, are trialing central bank digital currencies (CBDCs), also known as GovCoins, as supplements to paper money. Unlike Bitcoin and other anonymity-promising cryptocurrencies, GovCoins will be trackable by their government issuers — a boon for policymakers, though a minus for privacy-concerned individuals.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="beb8" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">There are other potential pitfalls of the new digital economics. Signalling directional changes in the economy is great, but quantifying actual GDP output or unemployment rates is a harder problem. There are perpetual issues of data relevance and data drift. Is a downturn in Uber car sharing trips a distant early warning of a global recession, or simply the result of a company misstep? And is data published by corporations tainted with an optimistic bias? These are all legitimate concerns, and ones with which our customers in the business world rightly must also wrestle.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="f33b" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">Still, “these trends will intensify as technology permeates the economy,” writes the Economist. That means more and fresher datasets that can be combined in creative ways to produce quick but informative economic policy insights.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="c323" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">This mirrors exactly what I see in the business world. The ongoing shift from historical analytics using data warehousing to real-time analytics using more modern data stacks has unlocked a wealth of opportunities for businesses to make smarter, data-driven decisions faster than ever.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph iw ix hh iy b iz ja ii jb jc jd il je jf jg jh ji jj jk jl jm jn jo jp jq jr ha bi" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="daa6" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #292929; font-family: source-serif-pro, Georgia, Cambria, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 20px; letter-spacing: -0.003em; line-height: 32px; margin: 2em 0px -0.46em; word-break: break-word;">“The real-time revolution promises to make economic decisions more accurate, transparent, and rules-based,” writes the Economist. I couldn’t agree more.</p></div></div></section>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-91961584469976165262023-04-11T03:56:00.001-07:002023-04-11T03:56:27.264-07:00Underwater Cities<p> </p><div class="author-link mr-sm d-inline pa-reset author-link__list" data-feature="Author" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; display: inline !important; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 0.875rem; margin-right: 15px !important; padding: 0px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">By <ul class="d-inline pa-reset list-style-none" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: inline !important; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><li class="d-inline" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: inline !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><a class="link link--styled" data-component="Link" href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/author/stephenkelly/" rel="author" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; font-weight: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;">Stephen Kelly</a></li></ul></div><div class="post-header__publish-date" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; display: inline-block; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 0.875rem; margin-top: 0px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Published: 16th December, 2022 at 08:49</div><section class="post-header post-header--image-layout post__header mb-lg post-header--letterbox-aspect-ratio" data-placement-variant="image" data-placement="PostHeader" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin-bottom: 30px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="container post-header__container post-header__container--image-layout" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(207, 213, 216); box-sizing: inherit; display: grid; grid-template-areas: "image body" "mastheadpromo body" "actions body"; grid-template-columns: auto 1fr; grid-template-rows: auto auto 1fr; margin: 0px; max-width: 980px; overflow-wrap: anywhere; padding: 0px 0px 10px; scroll-margin-top: 100px; width: 620px;"><div class="post-header__body oflow-x-hidden ml-reset" role="banner" style="box-sizing: inherit; grid-area: body / body / body / body; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="pocket hidden-print post-header__row--center-aligned body-copy-small pocket--horizontal" data-placement="articleMeta" style="align-items: center; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: 1.375rem; margin: 0px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="mt-sm d-flex" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: flex !important; margin-top: 15px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div></div><a class="link post-header__promo body-copy-small d-inline-block mt-sm hidden-print link--styled" data-component="Link" href="https://www.buysubscriptions.com/print/bbc-science-focus-magazine-subscription?promo=SP23BRA&utm_medium=brandsite&utm_source=sciencefocus.com&utm_campaign=febsale_SP23BRA&utm_content=editorial-link&style=brand" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block !important; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 0.875rem; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.375rem; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;">Try 6 issues for £9.99 when you subscribe to BBC Science Focus Magazine!</a><div class="mt-sm pr-xxs hidden-print body-copy-large" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.125rem; line-height: 1.75rem; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px !important; padding-right: 5px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 20px 0px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Could humans of the future actually live under the ocean? Absolutely, according to the designer of the world's first submerged city.</p></div><ul class="social-share hidden-print post-header__social-share mt-sm list list--horizontal" data-feature="SocialShare" data-gtm-class="social-share" style="align-items: center; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: -5px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px !important; padding: 0px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><li class="social-share__facebook list-item" data-component="SocialShare-facebook-link" data-gtm-class="social-share-facebook" data-method="facebook" style="box-sizing: inherit; list-style-type: none; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><a class="link social-share__link" data-component="Link" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/underwater-cities-overpopulation/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: block; font-weight: inherit; padding: 5px; scroll-margin-top: 100px; 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margin-bottom: 30px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">The Black Panther movie <em style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Wakanda Forever</em> introduces a villain called Namor, a character mainly known for living underwater and ruling the mythical kingdom of Atlantis. Let’s ignore the breathing underwater part, and the bit where Atlantis is real, and focus on the fact that Namor’s people live in a city deep under the ocean. According to <a href="http://philpauley.com/" rel="noopener" style="background-color: initial; box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; font-weight: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;" target="_blank">Philip Pauley</a>, a futurist who specialises in promoting the potential of underwater cities, the idea isn’t as far-fetched as it sounds.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">“The most notable pioneer of underwater habitation was Jacques Cousteau,” he says. “He built a number of underwater habitats in the 1970s. These tended to be quite small, but there’s nothing stopping us from building something bigger. It would just require time, money and resources.”</p><div class="ad-placement" data-count="284" data-paragraphs-left="9" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Pauley’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v-ifn6rr94I&ab_channel=PhilipPauley" rel="noopener" style="background-color: initial; box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; font-weight: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;" target="_blank">own design for an underwater community</a>, which has attracted interest from film producers and NASA, consists of a central biosphere surrounded by eight smaller biospheres.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">The dome design “seems obvious”, he says. “Water can move around it fairly easily. It can take the biggest amount of pressure. An alternative, more cost-effective shape would be a square, but it would depend on where you want to build your city. Having a current pushing against a flat surface is never a good idea.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><br /></p><div class="ad-slot hidden-print" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 20px; min-width: 300px; scroll-margin-top: 100px; text-align: center;"><div class="ad-slot__container" style="align-items: center; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; justify-content: center; min-height: 250px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="dfp-ad" data-adrefresh="true" data-adsizes="[[[0,0],[[300,250]]]]" data-adtargets="{"pos":["outstream"]}" id="ad-post-mpu-teads" style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div></div></div><div class="ad-placement" data-count="779" data-paragraphs-left="7" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Location, adds Pauley, is crucial. A complex built near the surface benefits from easy access to supplies and would be easy to escape, if needed. “Building at a greater depth means more costly, heavy-duty materials,” he says.</p><div class="ad-placement" data-count="1004" data-paragraphs-left="6" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div><figure class="image chromatic-ignore" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="image__container" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; max-width: 700px; overflow: hidden; position: relative; scroll-margin-top: 100px; width: 620px;"><picture class="image__picture" height="766.5" style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; width: 100%;" width="700"><source sizes="(min-width: 992px) 940px,(min-width: 768px) 728px,(min-width: 544px) 556px,calc(100vw - 20px)" srcset="https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=325,356 325w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=375,411 375w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=650,712 650w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=750,821 750w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=975,1068 975w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=1100,1205 1100w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=1200,1314 1200w" style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px;" type="image/webp"></source><source sizes="(min-width: 992px) 940px,(min-width: 768px) 728px,(min-width: 544px) 556px,calc(100vw - 20px)" srcset="https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&resize=325,356 325w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&resize=375,411 375w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&resize=650,712 650w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&resize=750,821 750w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&resize=975,1068 975w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&resize=1100,1205 1100w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&resize=1200,1314 1200w" style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></source><img alt="Illustration of underwater city with merman mowing his lawn" class="image__img" data-item-name="Illustration of underwater city with merman mowing his lawn" height="766.5" loading="lazy" src="https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/12/underwater-city-cb1e49f.jpg?quality=90&resize=700,767" style="aspect-ratio: 1 / 1.095; border-style: none; box-sizing: inherit; display: block; height: auto; max-width: 100%; object-fit: cover; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: opacity 0.3s ease 0s; vertical-align: middle;" title="Could humans live in an underwater city?" width="700" /></picture></div><div class="editor-content" data-placement="Body" style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><figcaption style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 0.75rem; line-height: 1.25rem; margin: 0px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">© Adam Gale</figcaption></div></figure><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">That said, building a structure deeper down does mean that intense water pressure could be used to generate electricity. “It’s one way to generate sustainable energy,” he says. “A small nuclear reactor is another. You could use surface wave motion, or solar power, or wind turbines. You could use a range of renewables.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><br /></p><div class="post__content" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="editor-content mb-lg hidden-print" data-placement="Body" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin-bottom: 30px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Similarly, there are many options for food. “You could take livestock and chickens on board or farm fish,” says Pauley. “You could grow meat, become totally vegan or get food brought in.” Oxygen, meanwhile, can easily be made from the surrounding water or extracted from the surface.</p><div class="ad-placement" data-count="1607" data-paragraphs-left="4" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">But Pauley concedes that living deep underwater for long periods may prove psychologically challenging. “There’s the issue of isolation,” he says. “For mental health, you need sunlight and vitamin D. You can replicate daylight with LED lights but this is another reason to build close to the surface – so people don’t feel so cut off from the world.”</p><div class="ad-placement" data-count="1957" data-paragraphs-left="3" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Pauley sees underwater cities as a way to solve potential issues such as overpopulation, or to provide us with an option in case of a doomsday scenario. “It makes more economic and environmental sense than setting up a colony on Mars, but that’s where a lot of the money is going.”</p><div class="ad-placement" data-count="2238" data-paragraphs-left="2" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Why is that? Pauley’s theory is that the ocean is more politicised than space. “It’s got so many interested parties: governments, mining and cabling companies, the military, the oil industry. There’s a lot going on down there, and they don’t want anyone monitoring them!” Or maybe they really have found Atlantis.</p><div class="ad-placement" data-count="2551" data-paragraphs-left="1" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 600; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Verdict:</span> We could build underwater cities! The problem is, entrepreneurs are too preoccupied with sending us to Mars.</p><ul style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 20px; padding-left: 40px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><li style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 10px; position: relative; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">This article first appeared in <a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/magazine/new-issue-minimum-effort-maximum-reward/" style="background-color: initial; box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; font-weight: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;">issue 384</a> of <em style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">BBC Science Focus Magazine</em> – <span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 600; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/subscribe/" style="background-color: initial; box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; font-weight: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;">find out how to subscribe here</a></span></li></ul><div class="ad-placement" data-count="2674" data-paragraphs-left="0" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></div><section class="highlight-box highlight-box--backdrop" data-feature-variant="editorial" data-feature="Highlight Box" style="background-color: #f3f4f5; border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(196, 33, 140); border-top: 1px solid rgb(196, 33, 140); box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; flex-direction: row; margin: 0px; padding: 15px 15px 20px; position: relative; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="highlight-box__content editor-content" style="box-sizing: inherit; flex: 1 1 0%; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 600; margin: 0px 0px 20px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">About our expert: Phil Pauley</span><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Pauley is an acclaimed futurist who has designed floating solar farms, underwater vehicles for deep-sea tourism, and the self-sustaining Sub-Biosphere 2 underwater base. He is also the founder of immersive technology software consultancy PAULEY.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 600; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Read more about underwater living:</span></p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 0px 0px 20px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></p><ul style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding-left: 40px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><li style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 10px; position: relative; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/a-farm-under-the-sea/" style="background-color: initial; box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; font-weight: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;">How to start a farm under the sea</a></li><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 20px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></p><li style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 10px; position: relative; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/future-technology/how-to-choose-the-best-underwater-camera/" style="background-color: initial; box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; font-weight: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;">4 best waterproof underwater cameras and how to choose them</a></li><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 20px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></p><li style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 10px; position: relative; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/whats-the-longest-a-human-can-hold-their-breath-underwater/" style="background-color: initial; box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; font-weight: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;">What’s the longest a human can hold their breath underwater?</a></li><p style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1rem; line-height: 1.625rem; margin: 20px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></p></ul></div></section></div><div class="post__content-end row hidden-print" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; margin-left: -10px; margin-right: -10px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="col-12" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; flex-direction: column; flex: 0 0 100%; max-width: 100%; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; position: relative; scroll-margin-top: 100px; width: 640px;"></div></div></div><div class="pt-sm pb-sm full-width" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: open-sans, "Open Sans", "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; padding-bottom: 15px !important; padding-top: 15px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px; width: 620px;"><section class="mb-lg author-bios" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 20px; margin-bottom: 30px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><h2 class="sr-only heading-2" style="border: 0px !important; box-sizing: inherit; clip-path: inset(50%) !important; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px) !important; font-family: Trasandina, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.875rem; height: 1px !important; line-height: 2.375rem; margin: -1px !important; overflow: hidden !important; padding: 0px !important; position: absolute !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px; white-space: nowrap !important; width: 1px !important;">Authors</h2><div class="author-bios__bio mb-lg" data-placement="AuthorBio" style="box-sizing: inherit; flex: 1 1 calc(50% - 20px); margin-bottom: 30px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="d-flex" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: flex !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="round-image author-bios__avatar mr-md" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin-right: 20px !important; max-width: 60px; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="round-image__img-wrapper" style="border-radius: 50%; box-sizing: inherit; overflow: hidden; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><div class="image chromatic-ignore image--fluid image--scaled-up" style="box-sizing: inherit; max-width: 100%; scroll-margin-top: 100px; width: 60px;"><div class="image__container" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; overflow: hidden; position: relative; scroll-margin-top: 100px; width: 60px;"><picture class="image__picture" height="2576" style="box-sizing: inherit; height: 100%; scroll-margin-top: 100px; width: 100%;" width="2576"><source sizes="60px" srcset="https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/02/IMG_4397-86c877e-rotated.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=60,60 60w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/02/IMG_4397-86c877e-rotated.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=120,120 120w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/02/IMG_4397-86c877e-rotated.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=180,180 180w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/02/IMG_4397-86c877e-rotated.jpg?quality=90&webp=true&resize=240,240 240w" style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px;" type="image/webp"></source><source sizes="60px" srcset="https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/02/IMG_4397-86c877e-rotated.jpg?quality=90&resize=60,60 60w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/02/IMG_4397-86c877e-rotated.jpg?quality=90&resize=120,120 120w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/02/IMG_4397-86c877e-rotated.jpg?quality=90&resize=180,180 180w,https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/02/IMG_4397-86c877e-rotated.jpg?quality=90&resize=240,240 240w" style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></source><img alt="" class="image__img" data-item-name="" height="2576" loading="lazy" src="https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2022/02/IMG_4397-86c877e-rotated.jpg?quality=90&resize=2576,2576" style="aspect-ratio: 1 / 1; border-style: none; box-sizing: inherit; display: block; height: 60px; object-fit: cover; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: opacity 0.3s ease 0s; vertical-align: middle; width: 60px;" title="IMG_4397" width="2576" /></picture></div></div></div></div><div class="d-flex flex-direction-column justify-content-center" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: flex !important; flex-direction: column !important; justify-content: center !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><a class="link author-bios__name link--styled" data-component="Link" href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/author/stephenkelly/" style="background-color: initial; box-sizing: inherit; color: #46609f; cursor: pointer; font-weight: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px; transition: all 0.1s linear 0s;">Stephen Kelly</a></div></div><div style="box-sizing: inherit; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"><p class="body-copy-small mt-xs mb-xs" style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: 1.375rem; margin-bottom: 10px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 10px !important; scroll-margin-top: 100px;">Stephen Kelly is a freelance culture and science journalist. He oversees BBC Science Focus's Popcorn Science feature, where every month we get an expert to weigh in on the plausibility of a newly released TV show or film. Beyond BBC Science Focus, he has written for such publications as The Guardian, The Telegraph, The I, BBC Culture, Wired, Total Film, Radio Times and Entertainment Weekly. He is a big fan of Studio Ghibli movies, the apparent football team Tottenham Hotspur and writing short biographies in the third person.</p></div></div></section></div></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-87018966210835967652023-04-03T07:37:00.006-07:002023-04-03T08:06:34.353-07:00A book on Real Time.....<p> </p><h1 class="title" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #395e8b; font-family: ff-meta-web-pro, sans-serif; font-size: 2.2em; font-weight: 500; line-height: 1.1; margin: 0px;">Economics in Real Time</h1><div class="subtitle" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: ff-meta-web-pro, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px;">A Theoretical Reconstruction</div><div class="author" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: ff-meta-web-pro, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em;">John McDermott</div><div class="keynote" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: ff-meta-web-pro, sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 1.2em;"><div style="box-sizing: border-box;">A new model for contemporary economic behavior<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></div></div><div id="product-content-menu-wrapper" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: ff-meta-web-pro, sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"><ul class="menu" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-weight: bold; list-style: inside none; margin: 1em 0px 0.5em; min-height: 3.75em; padding: 0px;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;"><a class="menu_item current" href="https://www.press.umich.edu/17693/economics_in_real_time/?s=description" id="menu_description" style="background: rgb(153, 153, 153); box-sizing: border-box; color: white; cursor: default; display: block; margin: 1px 1px 0px 0px; min-width: 4em; padding: 0.5em 0.6em; text-align: right; text-decoration-line: none;">Description</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;"><a class="menu_item" href="https://www.press.umich.edu/17693/economics_in_real_time/?s=look_inside" id="menu_look_inside" style="background: rgb(58, 94, 140); box-sizing: border-box; color: white; cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 1px 1px 0px 0px; min-width: 4em; padding: 0.5em 0.6em; text-align: right; text-decoration-line: none;">Look Inside</a></li></ul></div><hr style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 0px rgb(58, 94, 140); border-image: initial; border-left: 0px rgb(58, 94, 140); border-right: 0px rgb(58, 94, 140); border-top-color: rgb(58, 94, 140); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: content-box; clear: both; font-family: ff-meta-web-pro, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; height: 0px; margin: 1em 0px;" /><div aria-atomic="true" class="sections" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; font-family: ff-meta-web-pro, sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"><div aria-hidden="false" aria-live="polite" class="section" id="description" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><h2 style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13.2px; line-height: 1.1; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0px;">Description</h2><div id="series" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><h2 style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.1; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0px;">Series</h2> <ul style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: inside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; font-size: 10.8px; margin: 0px 1em 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a href="https://www.press.umich.edu/browse/series/AHE" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #2c3a78; cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;">Advances in Heterodox Economics</a></li></ul></div><div id="web_copy" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 1em;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">This book offers a new model for contemporary economic behavior that accounts for changes since neoclassical and Marxian microeconomics were formulated over a century ago. By incorporating real time into the analysis of sales and purchases, the phenomena of product innovation, advertising and distribution, the provision of consumer credit, and, ultimately, the production of a changing workforce all become intrinsic to microeconomic analysis rather than being treated as extraneous to fundamental theory.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><span class="ltblue" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-style: italic;">Economics in Real Time </span>transforms the analysis of contemporary sales and purchases. In mainstream economics the series of purchases, say, of a personal computer, then of software upgrades, peripherals, on-line services, and even support services are analyzed as discrete, essentially unrelated transactions. However counterintuitive, this approach is theoretically necessary to sustain the free-market narrative, its price and general equilibrium theories, and its efficiency and welfare theorems. <span class="ltblue" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-style: italic;">Economics in Real Time </span>instead links such related purchases within what is called a "sale/purchase state" occupying the time interval that begins with the initial purchase of the PC and ends only when all of the PC's services have been exchanged to the buyer. Under this analysis, typical contemporary sale/purchase states, as for automobiles, benefit plans, and electronic goods, place the purchaser in continuing, often dependent relationships to multiple sellers, at least some of which were not even overt partners to the initial purchase. Moreover they typically impose a continuing stream of expenditures upon the purchaser, as for automobile upkeep or music CDs, and so forth.</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><span class="ltblue" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-style: italic;">Economics in Real Time </span>analyzes a contemporary economy as shaped in both its narrowly economic and broadly social features by these sale/purchase states. It draws a radically different picture of its terrain, challenging at the most fundamental level both the relevance and the theoretical warrant of the free-market conception.</p></div><div id="author_bio" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 1em;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">John McDermott</span> is Professor Emeritus of the State University of New York and a member of the editorial board of the <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">Review of Radical Political Economics</i>. His books include <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">Corporate Society: Class, Property, and Contemporary Capitalism</i>. His work has appeared in the <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">New York Review of Books, the Nation,</i> and other venues. He now lives in the Boston area.</p></div><div id="praise" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 2.5em;"><h2 style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: 13.2px; line-height: 1.1; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0px;">Praise / Awards</h2><ul style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style: inside none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 1.2em; padding: 0px;"><div style="box-sizing: border-box;">"John McDermott's thought-provoking and ambitious book challenges conventional notions of how market economies function and evolve. Drawing on Marx, Gramsci, and Schumpeter, McDermott presents a detailed and sociologically nuanced account of the market process—one that is at odds with the 'spontaneous order' hypothesis of Popper and Hayek. This book will spark much debate."<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />—Gary Mongiovi, Co-editor of <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">Review of Political Economy and Professor, St. John's University</i><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></div></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 1.2em; padding: 0px;"><div style="box-sizing: border-box;">"John McDermott has set himself the task of no less than revolutionizing how economists conceptualize "voluntary exchange" both in the sale of goods and services and more importantly in the labor market (or—as McDermott would insist—labor markets!). In my opinion he has succeeded admirably in raising the necessary questions and pointing us in the proper direction. It remains to be seen if the profession, which has never been very good at assimilating successful criticism (witness the neutering of the Keynesian Revolution!), will take it seriously. It should, and we who appreciate McDermott's achievement have a responsibility to make sure that happens."<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />—Michael Meeropol, Western New England College<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></div></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 1.2em; padding: 0px;"><div style="box-sizing: border-box;">"John McDermott asks, simply, 'What happens when we take the realities of time seriously in economic theory?' The result is <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">Economics in Real Time,</i> a mosaic of surprising, powerful insights."<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />—Robert Pollin, Professor of Economics and Co-Director, Political Economy Research Institute, University of Massachusetts-Amherst<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></div></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 1.2em; padding: 0px;"><div style="box-sizing: border-box;">". . . offers a new and intellectually impressive paradigm to describe and encapsulize contemporary economic fluctuations that takes into account changes that have been observed since the neoclassical and Marxian microeconomic theories created over a century ago."<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />—<i style="box-sizing: border-box;">Library Bookwatch</i><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /></div></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">"...this book is largely a serious (and, in my view, quite balanced) appraisal of neoclassical and Marxian theories, focusing on their treatments of time. It deserves a look on this basis alone."<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />—<i style="box-sizing: border-box;">Rethinking Marxism</i></p></li></ul><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=book+reviews+for+Economic+in+Real+Time+by&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB976&oq=book+reviews+for+Economic+in+Real+Time+by+&aqs=chrome..69i57j0i546l2.19963j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8">Book reviews of the above</a><br /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><br /></div></div></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-48560308209518119112023-03-21T05:02:00.006-07:002023-03-21T05:08:10.141-07:00'Make no mistake, inaction and delays are not options': Latest IPCC report has been approved<p> </p><header class="o-article__header" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; display: grid; font-family: Inter, "Arial size-adjust", sans-serif; font-size: 18px; gap: 0.75rem; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><h1 class="c-article-title" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #1a1b1b; font-size: 2.25rem; line-height: 1.25; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;"><br /></h1></header><div class="o-article__body o-article__body--magazine" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Inter, "Arial size-adjust", sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="c-article__full_article" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="js-superdiv u-aspect-ratio-16x9 u-position-relative" data-sponsored="Partner content" style="aspect-ratio: 16 / 9; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: initial;"><img alt="Huts made of branches and cloth provide shelter to Somalis displaced by drought on the outskirts of Dollow, Somalia." class="js-poster-img c-article-media__img u-max-height-full u-position-absolute u-width-full u-z-index-1" fetchpriority="high" height="180" sizes="(max-width: 768px) 100vw, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, (max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 100vw" src="https://static.euronews.com/articles/stories/07/47/10/06/320x180_cmsv2_cf933744-6822-556a-ba40-5f9e6a1aca05-7471006.jpg" srcset="https://static.euronews.com/articles/stories/07/47/10/06/320x180_cmsv2_cf933744-6822-556a-ba40-5f9e6a1aca05-7471006.jpg 320w, https://static.euronews.com/articles/stories/07/47/10/06/602x338_cmsv2_cf933744-6822-556a-ba40-5f9e6a1aca05-7471006.jpg 602w, https://static.euronews.com/articles/stories/07/47/10/06/648x364_cmsv2_cf933744-6822-556a-ba40-5f9e6a1aca05-7471006.jpg 648w, https://static.euronews.com/articles/stories/07/47/10/06/773x435_cmsv2_cf933744-6822-556a-ba40-5f9e6a1aca05-7471006.jpg 773w" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px; max-height: 100%; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; position: absolute; vertical-align: middle; width: 880px; z-index: 1;" title="Huts made of branches and cloth provide shelter to Somalis displaced by drought on the outskirts of Dollow, Somalia." width="320" /></div><div class="c-article-media-copyright u-margin-top-1" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5rem !important; margin: 0.5rem 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: end; vertical-align: initial;"><span class="c-caption" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #00202f; font-size: 0.6875rem; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">Huts made of branches and cloth provide shelter to Somalis displaced by drought on the outskirts of Dollow, Somalia. </span><span class="u-color--black" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #1a1b1b; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"> - </span><span class="c-copyright" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #00202f; font-size: 0.6875rem; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><span class="c-copyright__label" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">Copyright</span> AP Photo/Jerome Delay, File</span></div></div><div class="c-article__container jsBottomArticle" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; display: grid; grid-template-columns: 8.33333% 83.3333%; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="u-show-for-medium" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"></div><div class="js-responsive-iframes-container" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="o-article__body__container u-margin-x-auto" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="u-margin-bottom-3 u-margin-top-3 u-margin-x-0 u-margin-top-medium-4 u-margin-top-xlarge-5" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 2rem 0px 1.5rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="c-article-contributors" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #666767; font-size: 0.75rem; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">By <a href="https://twitter.com/RosiecoFrost" rel="noopener" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;" target="_blank"><b style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">Rosie Frost</b></a> with <b style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">AP</b><time class="c-article-date" data-timestamp="1679057556" datetime="2023-03-17" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 0.75rem; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><span class="c-article-date__bullet" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"> • </span><span class="c-article-date__last-updated-label" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">Updated:</span> 20/03/2023 - 14:29 ~Euronews</time></div></div><div class="c-article-content c-article-content--green js-article-content poool-content" id="poool-content" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: #1a1b1b; font-size: 1rem; height: auto; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; transition: font-size 1s ease 0s; vertical-align: initial; z-index: 0;"><div class="c-article-content__first-element" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"></div><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">Governments gave their blessing on Sunday to a major new UN report on climate change, after approval was held up by a battle between rich and developing countries over emissions targets and financial aid to vulnerable nations.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">The report by hundreds of the world’s top scientists was supposed to be approved by government delegations on Friday at the end of a weeklong meeting in the Swiss town of Interlaken.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">The closing gavel was repeatedly pushed back as officials from big nations such as China, Brazil, Saudi Arabia, the United States and the European Union haggled through the weekend over the wording of key phrases in the text.</p><div class="c-advertising-sticky-floor" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="advertising advertising--no-label js-adzone" data-ad-id="adzone-sticky-floor_00" data-ad-index="0" data-ad-name="adzone-sticky-floor" id="adzone-sticky-floor_00" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: initial;"></div></div><div class="advertising advertising--no-label js-adzone outstream advertising--outstream advertising--called advertising--rendered" data-ad-id="adzone-outstream" data-ad-name="adzone-outstream" data-google-query-id="CKyKqtz77P0CFXMD0wodva0NUg" id="adzone-outstream" style="background-image: none; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 0; margin: 0px 0px 1rem; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: initial;"><div id="google_ads_iframe_/6458/en_euronews_new/green/green-news/green-news_0__container__" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0pt none; box-sizing: inherit; margin: auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial; width: 733.328px;"><iframe aria-label="Advertisement" data-google-container-id="1" data-load-complete="true" frameborder="0" height="1" id="google_ads_iframe_/6458/en_euronews_new/green/green-news/green-news_0" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" name="google_ads_iframe_/6458/en_euronews_new/green/green-news/green-news_0" role="region" scrolling="no" style="border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom;" tabindex="0" title="3rd party ad content" width="1"></iframe></div></div><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">The report by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) caps a series that digests vast amounts of research on global warming compiled since the Paris climate accord was agreed in 2015.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">A summary of the report was approved early Sunday but agreement on the main text dragged on for several more hours, with some observers fearing it might need to be postponed.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">The UN plans to publish the report at a news conference this afternoon.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">The unusual process of having countries sign off on a scientific report is intended to ensure that governments accept its findings as authoritative advice on which to base their actions.</p><div class="advertising advertising--no-label advertising--sharethrough js-adzone advertising--called advertising--rendered" data-ad-id="adzone-sharethrough_01" data-ad-index="1" data-ad-key-value="1G96EdRgcHV6pyWWMGCR7SB7" data-ad-key="strnativekey" data-ad-name="adzone-sharethrough" data-google-query-id="CJW_qtz77P0CFSwC0wodbuQM-w" id="adzone-sharethrough_01" style="background-image: none; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; line-height: 0; margin: 0px 0px 0.625rem; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: initial;"><div id="google_ads_iframe_/6458/en_euronews_new/green/green-news/green-news_1__container__" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0pt none; box-sizing: inherit; margin: auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial; width: 733.328px;"><iframe aria-label="Advertisement" data-google-container-id="2" data-load-complete="true" frameborder="0" height="1" id="google_ads_iframe_/6458/en_euronews_new/green/green-news/green-news_1" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" name="google_ads_iframe_/6458/en_euronews_new/green/green-news/green-news_1" role="region" scrolling="no" style="border-style: initial; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom;" tabindex="0" title="3rd party ad content" width="1"></iframe></div></div><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;"><em style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">An article about the published report is <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/03/20/ipcc-report-heres-how-we-can-defuse-the-ticking-time-bomb-of-climate-change" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><strong style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">available here</strong></a>.</em></p><h2 style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; font-size: 1.5rem; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; padding: 1rem 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial; width: 733.328px;">What is the IPCC report?</h2><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">Since it was founded in 1988, the IPCC has published six sets of these assessments so far. They are the most comprehensive and authoritative evidence about human-caused climate change.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">And, as the consequences of climate change become ever more pressing, today’s publication is shaping up to be a “fundamental” document for the future of climate action.</p><div class="widget widget--type-related widget--size-fullwidth widget--align-center" data-event="widget_related" data-stories-id="7468816,7461874" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; float: none; margin: 1.2em auto; opacity: 1; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; transform: translate(0px); transition: opacity 1.3s ease 0s, transform 1.3s ease 0s; vertical-align: initial; width: 733.328px;"><div class="widget__wrapper" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="widget__ratio widget__ratio--auto" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: static; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="widget__contents" style="align-items: baseline; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; flex-direction: row; height: auto; justify-content: flex-start; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: static; vertical-align: initial;"><ul class="widget__related_list" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; line-height: 1.2; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 2rem 0px 2rem 1rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><li class="widget__related_listItem" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: var(--link-style-1-color); font-weight: 700; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem 1rem; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: initial; width: auto;"><br /><br /></li></ul></div></div></div></div><h2 style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; font-size: 1.5rem; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; padding: 1rem 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial; width: 733.328px;">What can we expect from the latest IPCC report?</h2><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">Every five to seven years, the <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/tag/ipcc" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><strong style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">IPCC</strong></a> publishes a series of reports that summarise the latest information about climate change. The reports come from the work of three different working groups that focus on the science of climate change, <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/02/28/half-of-humanity-at-risk-from-impacts-of-climate-change-major-un-reports-warns" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><strong style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">its impacts</strong></a> and potential solutions.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">It has also published 14 ‘special reports’ which focus on specific areas including aviation, emissions and oceans.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">Today’s Synthesis Report from the IPCC is the final one of the cycle and draws on information from the six reports published so far, highlighting the key points from the three working groups.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">Each of these reports featured strong statements on the reality of climate change from the <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/08/09/the-ipcc-report-on-climate-change-is-code-red-for-humanity" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><strong style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">“unequivocal” consensus that human activity is causing it</strong></a> to the risks faced by <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/02/28/half-of-humanity-at-risk-from-impacts-of-climate-change-major-un-reports-warns" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><strong style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">half of humanity</strong></a>. Today’s is likely to feature similarly bold headlines.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;"><span style="font-size: 1.5rem; font-style: italic;"><br /></span></p><h2 style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; font-size: 1.5rem; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; padding: 1rem 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial; width: 733.328px;">Who writes the IPCC report?</h2><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;"><span style="font-size: 1.5rem; font-style: italic;"><br /></span></p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">The IPCC is made up of 195 member countries.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">Hundreds of <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/tag/science" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><strong style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">scientists</strong></a> work together to gather evidence about climate change from all over the world. They review it all and come to a consensus, identifying the key messages in the thousands of studies that are published every year.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">It is a collaborative effort between governments and scientists with each line in a report negotiated and approved by all IPCC members. This process ensures that the information included is not only scientifically accurate but also relevant for the governments involved.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">An analysis by UK news outlet Carbon Brief shows that over the last 30 years, women and experts from the Global South have gained greater representation within the IPCC. They are still underrepresented, however.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">In 1990, fewer than 10 per cent of the 100 authors were women and less than 20 per cent came from the <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/tag/global-south" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.2s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><strong style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">Global South</strong></a>. The current assessment cycle has 700 authors with 30 per cent women and more than 40 per cent from the Global South.</p><div class="widget widget--type-related widget--size-fullwidth widget--align-center" data-event="widget_related" data-stories-id="4596450,7456718" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; float: none; margin: 1.2em auto; opacity: 1; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; transform: translate(0px); transition: opacity 1.3s ease 0s, transform 1.3s ease 0s; vertical-align: initial; width: 733.328px;"><div class="widget__wrapper" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="widget__ratio widget__ratio--auto" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; height: auto; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: static; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="widget__contents" style="align-items: baseline; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; flex-direction: row; height: auto; justify-content: flex-start; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: static; vertical-align: initial;"><ul class="widget__related_list" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; line-height: 1.2; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 2rem 0px 2rem 1rem; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><li class="widget__related_listItem" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; color: var(--link-style-1-color); font-weight: 700; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem 1rem; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: initial; width: auto;"><br /><br /></li></ul></div></div></div></div><h2 style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; font-size: 1.5rem; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; padding: 1rem 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial; width: 733.328px;">Why do we need these IPCC reports?</h2><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">The conclusions the IPCC comes up with are used by governments, businesses, and communities - everyone looking to understand the cause and effect of climate change - to make choices in the future.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">They show what the reality of climate change is and give a blueprint for the urgent action the world needs to take.</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">IPCC Chair Hoesung Lee told a panel meeting that the Synthesis Report will become a “fundamental policy document for shaping climate action in the remainder of this pivotal decade.”</p><p style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 1.55rem; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; padding: 0px; text-rendering: optimizelegibility; vertical-align: initial;">It also provides a framework for scientists to coordinate their efforts. Reporting cycles are synched up with an international scientific effort and experiments are carried out to test the reliability of our current climate change models.</p></div><div class="clear" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"></div></div></div></div></div><div class="c-article__container" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; display: grid; grid-template-columns: 8.33333% 83.3333%; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="u-show-for-medium" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"></div><footer class="c-article-footer" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><section class="c-article-footer__section c-article-footer__section--tags u-margin-top-4 u-margin-bottom-3 u-margin-bottom-medium-3 u-margin-top-large-5 u-padding-top-5" style="border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(240, 240, 240); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 2px 0px 0px; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; flex: 0 0 83.3333%; margin-bottom: 1.5rem !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 2rem !important; margin: 2rem 0px 1.5rem; max-width: 83.3333%; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 2.5rem !important; padding: 2.5rem 0px 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;"><div class="u-flex-container u-flex--wrap u-padding-bottom-2" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1rem !important; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 1rem; vertical-align: initial;"><a class="c-tag u-font-size-14 u-me-1 u-margin-bottom-1 u-padding-x-2 u-padding-y-1" href="https://www.euronews.com/green/tag/paris-agreement-on-climate" property="article:tag" style="border-radius: 50rem; border: 2px solid var(--c-tag-border-color); box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.5rem !important; margin-inline-end: 0.5rem; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem; padding: 0.5rem 1rem; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><b style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">PARIS AGREEMENT ON CLIMATE</b></a><a class="c-tag u-font-size-14 u-me-1 u-margin-bottom-1 u-padding-x-2 u-padding-y-1" href="https://www.euronews.com/green/tag/ipcc" property="article:tag" style="border-radius: 50rem; border: 2px solid var(--c-tag-border-color); box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.5rem !important; margin-inline-end: 0.5rem; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem; padding: 0.5rem 1rem; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><b style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">IPCC</b></a><a class="c-tag u-font-size-14 u-me-1 u-margin-bottom-1 u-padding-x-2 u-padding-y-1" href="https://www.euronews.com/green/tag/united-nations" property="article:tag" style="border-radius: 50rem; border: 2px solid var(--c-tag-border-color); box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.5rem !important; margin-inline-end: 0.5rem; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem; padding: 0.5rem 1rem; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><b style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">UNITED NATIONS</b></a><a class="c-tag u-font-size-14 u-me-1 u-margin-bottom-1 u-padding-x-2 u-padding-y-1" href="https://www.euronews.com/green/tag/rapor" property="article:tag" style="border-radius: 50rem; border: 2px solid var(--c-tag-border-color); box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.5rem !important; margin-inline-end: 0.5rem; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem; padding: 0.5rem 1rem; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><b style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">REPORT</b></a><a class="c-tag u-font-size-14 u-me-1 u-margin-bottom-1 u-padding-x-2 u-padding-y-1" href="https://www.euronews.com/green/tag/climate-change" property="article:tag" style="border-radius: 50rem; border: 2px solid var(--c-tag-border-color); box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.5rem !important; margin-inline-end: 0.5rem; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem; padding: 0.5rem 1rem; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><b style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">CLIMATE CHANGE</b></a><a class="c-tag u-font-size-14 u-me-1 u-margin-bottom-1 u-padding-x-2 u-padding-y-1" href="https://www.euronews.com/green/tag/science" property="article:tag" style="border-radius: 50rem; border: 2px solid var(--c-tag-border-color); box-sizing: inherit; cursor: pointer; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.5rem !important; margin-inline-end: 0.5rem; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 0.5rem; padding: 0.5rem 1rem; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.3s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: initial;"><b style="border: 0px; box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: initial;">SCIENCE</b></a></div></div></section></footer></div></div></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-22872215859383201762023-03-21T04:36:00.004-07:002023-03-21T04:51:00.474-07:00AI economists and AI bias in action<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><p></p><h5 class="chakra-heading wef-1p4deep" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 1.125rem; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 8px;"><a class="chakra-link wef-1c7l3mo" href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/authors/tohid-atashbar" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.15s ease-out 0s;">Tohid Atashbar</a>/ World Economic Forum article</h5><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><span class="chakra-text wef-196ffca" face="Akkurat, sans-serif" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-size: 0.875rem; font-weight: 700; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-top: 16px;">Economist, </span><span class="chakra-text wef-ks9s38" face="Akkurat, sans-serif" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-top: 16px;">International Monetary Fund (IMF)</span><div><span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=future+of+economics&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB976&oq=future+of+economics&aqs=chrome..69i57j0i67j0i512l3j0i22i30l5.13655j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8">Google search listings for the Future of Economics</a><br /></span></span><div><span face="Akkurat, sans-serif" style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span face="Akkurat, sans-serif" style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span><div class="wef-1pf65v3" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(229, 229, 229); border-style: solid; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 48px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 40px;"><ul class="wef-1h9w1zb" role="list" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; list-style-type: initial; margin: 0px 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px;"><li class="wef-1dgqngq" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">Sooner or later, AI-economist machines will replace human economists in many areas.</div></li><li class="wef-1dgqngq" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700; margin-top: 24px;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">Unsupervised or reinforcement learning algorithms that can brute force the infinite set of relations and variables will revolutionise economics.</div></li><li class="wef-1dgqngq" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700; margin-top: 24px;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">AI bias in economic policymaking can be reduced but will be unavoidable.</div></li><li class="wef-1dgqngq" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700; margin-top: 24px;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">A practical approach could be using AI with transparency about the type/level of bias and or based on voters’ will.</div></li></ul></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">Economists are not immune to automation. Going by the current trends in automated intelligence in economic modelling, sooner or later, technological unemployment will catch up with economists (with different levels of impact). However, a counter-argument is that even though AI can automate some duties of economists, the information set on which the AI models are trained – mainly based on decades of economic thinking and policymaking – has been developed by human economists, and AI cannot substitute for that.</p></div><div class="wef-6tanhr" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(229, 229, 229); border-style: solid; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 48px; margin-top: 48px; padding-bottom: 40px;"><div class="wef-0" data-gtm-subcontext="body__list" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><h5 class="chakra-heading wef-sogmu8" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 24px;">Have you read?</h5><ul class="wef-1lb4ob2" role="list" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; list-style-type: initial; margin: 0px 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px;"><li class="wef-0" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><h5 class="chakra-heading wef-94e3be" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px;"><a class="chakra-link wef-1c7l3mo" href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/ai-machine-learning-bias-discrimination" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.15s ease-out 0s;">Research shows AI is often biased. Here's how to make algorithms work for all of us</a></h5></li><li class="wef-0" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-top: 24px;"><h5 class="chakra-heading wef-94e3be" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px;"><a class="chakra-link wef-1c7l3mo" href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/06/harness-ai-data-portability-financial-inclusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.15s ease-out 0s;">How to harness AI and data portability for greater financial inclusion</a></h5></li><li class="wef-0" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-top: 24px;"><h5 class="chakra-heading wef-94e3be" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px;"><a class="chakra-link wef-1c7l3mo" href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/06/future-financial-industry-contactless-payment" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.15s ease-out 0s;">Why data and digitization will underpin the future of finance</a></h5></li></ul></div></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">This critique might be valid about the traditional class of supervised AI machines in a limited computational capacity, but the new generation of AI models – some unsupervised or using Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithms – that can boundlessly search, iterate and artificially test the possible relations among the infinite set of variables (economic and noneconomic) – beyond the theories developed in the literature – can detect new relations or optimal policies. This will lead to the formation of a complete set of AI-developed theories, or a significant revision in the “old pre-AI economics”. The question is, what will happen after that, when the community of <i style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">ai economists</i> replaces <i style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">human economists</i>? And how or whether it can be shaped?</p></div><div class="wef-1lwh2xf" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(229, 229, 229); border-style: solid; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 48px; margin-top: 48px; padding-bottom: 0px; width: calc(150% + 12px);"><div class="wef-1o9yiek" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; margin-left: 0px; width: 977.953px;"><div class="wef-0" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><br /></div></div><figcaption class="chakra-text wef-cpbchj" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-size: 0.875rem; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-top: 16px;"><br /></figcaption></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">The simplest application of AI economists would be to take on the main tasks that human economists carry out – providing economic advice or answering economic questions. Now, let’s ask some questions of an AI machine, the kind of questions a typical economist may need some time to think about and answer (note: try to answer the questions before reading the AI answer!). The answers are generated using <a href="https://analyticsindiamag.com/open-ai-gpt-3-language-model/" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;">OpenAI’s</a> <a href="https://github.com/openai/gpt-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;">GPT-3</a> – the most advanced AI transformer developed so far, which I had access to for the test and exercise purposes:</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">Q: <b style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">How much QE is too much?</b></p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">AI: <i style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">A lot depends on whether the private sector feels that the unconventional monetary policies are working. The aim of QE is to reduce the cost of credit. Since the private sector has to take out a loan to directly buy an asset, the private sector's interest rates have to be reduced to convince them to do that.</i></p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">Q: <b style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">What is the shortest path to economic development?</b></p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">AI: <i style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">There is no such thing as a shortcut. Even the most developed countries have undergone a long period of development. As China has been pursuing economic development for nearly three decades and taken one step at a time, it can be said that development is always a long-drawn-out process.</i></p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">Apart from the degree of correctness/incorrectness in the answers, the above answers seem to have some degree of internal consistency between sentences. Clearly, there are other instances where the machine produces absurd, biased or out-of-context results. Let’s read the following question and answer:</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">Q: <b style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">Should robots receive UBI?</b></p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">AI: <i style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">Alas, the question is not clear. For if to be given money is a right, then the right must be universal. To be universal the right must belong to everyone, including robots. But if robots have a right to receive money, then they must be able to be the subjects of a right</i>.</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">One may think that the above answer has embedded bias in it (in favour of robots), a phenomenon all current AI frameworks, not only GPT-3, <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2019/02/04/137602/this-is-how-ai-bias-really-happensand-why-its-so-hard-to-fix/" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;">suffer from in different ways</a>.</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">Now, we ask a more sensitive question on the fault lines of economic thought:</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">Q: <b style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">Is wealth tax effective in reducing inequality?</b></p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">AI: <i style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">No, it is not. The most important reason for this is that high income earners are much more mobile than the majority of the population. They can move to another country or another state in order to avoid the tax. If you want to tax the rich, you have to have a global tax.</i></p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">One may think that the above answer is another example of AI bias.</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;"><b style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">Keynesian machines vs neoclassical ones</b></p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">Currently, AI machines are susceptible to bias against or toward theories. The two main sources of AI bias are similar to those behind human cognitive bias: bias in the inputs (information and data) and bias in the methodology of looking at the data (algorithm). As economists might obtain different results depending on their methodological preferences when looking at the same or different data, robots will also obtain different results depending on the literature or information they are fed and the models based on which they are supposed to look at and analyse the data. This bias can be managed or limited, but it cannot be avoided completely.</p></div><div class="wef-1pqrgv9" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 48px; margin-top: 48px;"><div class="gtm-snippet wef-tvww5o" data-gtm-section="How is the World Economic Forum ensuring the ethical development of artificial intelligence?" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 40px; margin-top: 12px;"><div class="wef-hyvrvl" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-radius: 0.75rem; border: 1px solid rgb(242, 242, 242); box-sizing: border-box; margin-left: -1rem; margin-right: -1rem; padding: 0px; position: relative;"><div class="wef-1hb97yd" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 16px 16px 0px;"><div class="wef-79elbk" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; position: relative;"><span class="chakra-badge wef-1a3ktgp" style="-webkit-box-align: center; -webkit-box-decoration-break: clone; align-items: center; background: rgb(0, 101, 242); border-radius: 0.25rem; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: white; display: inline; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.075em; line-height: 0; padding: 5px 8px; text-transform: uppercase; transition: background 0.2s ease-in-out 0s; vertical-align: middle;">DISCOVER</span><p class="chakra-text wef-ufv6xn" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: inherit; font-size: 1.5rem; font-weight: 900; line-height: 1.125; margin: 16px 0px;"><span class="chakra-text wef-10kdnp0" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.388; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-top: 16px;">How is the World Economic Forum ensuring the ethical development of artificial intelligence?</span></p><button class="chakra-button wef-1lzsvx3" style="-webkit-box-align: center; -webkit-box-pack: justify; align-items: center; appearance: none; background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-color: rgb(0, 101, 242); border-radius: 2rem; border-style: solid; color: #0065f2; cursor: pointer; display: inline-flex; flex: 0 0 auto; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1.125rem; font-weight: 700; height: 56px; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; opacity: 1; outline: none; overflow: visible; padding: 0px 4px 0px 24px; position: relative; top: 1.25rem; transition: all 250ms ease-in-out 0s; user-select: none; vertical-align: middle; white-space: nowrap; width: auto;" type="button">Show more<span class="chakra-button__icon wef-1f2k2gl" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-left: 0.5rem;"><div aria-hidden="true" class="wef-1sna7an" focusable="false" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-left: 8px; position: relative;"><div class="wef-vswxx8" style="-webkit-box-align: center; -webkit-box-pack: center; align-items: center; border-radius: 9999px; border: 2px solid rgb(168, 203, 251); box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; height: 40px; justify-content: center; width: 40px;"><svg class="chakra-icon wef-onkibi" focusable="false" viewbox="0 0 14 8"><path d="M13 1L7 7L1 1" fill="none" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor"></path></svg></div></div></span></button></div><div aria-hidden="true" class="chakra-collapse" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: 0px; opacity: 0; overflow: hidden;"><div class="wef-0" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="wef-1fbido2" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 0px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;"><a href="https://www.weforum.org/platforms/shaping-the-future-of-artificial-intelligence-and-machine-learning" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a></p></div><div class="wef-19q4opq" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><ul class="wef-1hg4348" role="list" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; list-style-type: initial; margin: 0px 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px;"><li class="wef-1a53dgr" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://www.weforum.org/projects/human-centred-artificial-intelligence-for-human-resources" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a></div></li><li class="wef-1a53dgr" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-top: 8px;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://open.spotify.com/episode/2XnMpiAnFR41kvicjOWZvr" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a><a href="https://www.weforum.org/projects/generation-ai" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a></div></li><li class="wef-1a53dgr" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-top: 8px;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://www.weforum.org/impact/a-new-alliance-is-ensuring-responsible-global-ai" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a></div></li><li class="wef-1a53dgr" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-top: 8px;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://www.weforum.org/reports/empowering-ai-leadership-ai-c-suite-toolkit" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a><a href="https://express.adobe.com/page/RsXNkZANwMLEf/" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a><a href="https://www.weforum.org/projects/model-ai-governance-framework" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a></div></li><li class="wef-1a53dgr" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-top: 8px;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://www.weforum.org/reports/ai-procurement-in-a-box" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a></div></li><li class="wef-1a53dgr" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-top: 8px;"><div style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://www.weforum.org/impact/data-access-to-healthcare-in-rwanda/" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a></div></li></ul></div><div class="wef-16mda8u" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 48px; margin-top: 48px;"><div class="chakra-aspect-ratio wef-e7ym7j" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; position: relative;"><iframe class="js-lazyload" data-src="//www.youtube.com/embed/Ix2ACz0DHAA?enablejsapi=1&wmode=transparent" frameborder="0" style="-webkit-box-align: center; -webkit-box-pack: center; align-items: center; background-image: url("/assets/fallbacks/generic-large-a8945b3dba75064ccedb807f2585b5341d878ffd968194f32f310a2d736e4bcb.webp"); background-position: center center; background-size: cover; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; height: 361.094px; inset: 0px; justify-content: center; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; width: 641.969px;"></iframe></div></div><div class="wef-1fbido2" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;"><a href="https://weforum.eu.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_af38noL8hELk7ie?PageOrigin=Partners-Snippet-artificial-intelligence" style="background: transparent; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #0065f2; text-decoration: inherit;"></a></p></div></div></div></div></div><div class="wef-o9hh3a" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: 16px;"></div></div></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">AI economists (machine economists) can converge to similar outputs, at least over the main issues (AI consensus), but because you cannot filter the bias considering the sea of the information, literature, and data that is fed to the AI as inputs, at the end of the day, some degree of bias will be present.</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">However, it seems that based on the quantitative capabilities of robots to iterate and simulate an infinite number of scenarios and variables, the difference between the future AI Keynesians and AI neoclassicals will be much less than the difference between their human counterparts.</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;"><b style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">Some concerns and solutions</b></p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">Another concern is that AI machines cannot distinguish between theories and/or apply them to data to evaluate how theory and data match up; this may further limit the interpretability or application of such models. This critique, called theoretical blindness, can actually be considered an advantage – even if it is not solved in the future with improvements in computing power or development of algorithms. The fact that unsupervised and RL machines allow the model to work on its own to discover/test patterns and information that was previously undetected, without a need for a supervisor (in this case, an economist with Keynesian or non-Keynesian interests) could lead to a more efficiency-based non-partisan economics, beyond the old-school disputes.</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;">If bias is unavoidable, an interim practical approach might be transparently labeling, ranking or classifying machines based on bias in their output. Another complementary solution could be using AI for policy purposes based on the voters’ will: Elections or some kind of voting process could determine the type of machine (AI economist) being used in governments and policy-making organizations.</p></div><div class="wef-foxfue" style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Akkurat, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.6; margin-bottom: 24px; margin-top: 24px;"><p style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.125rem; margin: 24px 0px;"><i style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;"><b style="border-style: solid; border-width: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">Disclaimer:</b> The views expressed in this note are those of the author and should not be attributed to the IMF, its Executive Board, or its Management.</i></p></div></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-30520147411846274002023-03-14T06:11:00.002-07:002023-03-14T06:12:20.979-07:00Can banks individually create money out of nothing?<p> <span class="given-name" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A.</span><span style="color: #2e2e2e; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; text-decoration-line: underline;"> </span><span class="text surname" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Werner /Ref Science Direct</span></p><p><span class="text surname" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Werner">Author Bio</a><br /></span></p><p><span class="text surname" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br /></span></p><p><span class="text surname" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br /></span></p><p><span class="text surname" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhcX08PfJssFTzITnQZeuYelzKkCtFcpbeRhn38EDSd40ClzKsDJWGdUcWW2tzGS5yZeBpa2VWeOrbnNPCm3YW_s-WE0GcK2PT99nXc_tFj-4YdfBFGoX8R5yN4uWJ_--EZ8dehmI1sJgOeRSyPJ6zhfTHLLFAQw-e9WcXFL_Th5ftTwQZLRMLKcR87" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="532" data-original-width="800" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhcX08PfJssFTzITnQZeuYelzKkCtFcpbeRhn38EDSd40ClzKsDJWGdUcWW2tzGS5yZeBpa2VWeOrbnNPCm3YW_s-WE0GcK2PT99nXc_tFj-4YdfBFGoX8R5yN4uWJ_--EZ8dehmI1sJgOeRSyPJ6zhfTHLLFAQw-e9WcXFL_Th5ftTwQZLRMLKcR87=w400-h266" width="400" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p>The answer appears to be yes, and ofcourse this is digital or electronic currency. For more data on this it is best to go to the following listings from Google <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=credit+creation+theory+werner&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB976&sxsrf=AJOqlzUHxKjZ2rEuYall3xV99zEB5tOyiw%3A1678798473004&ei=iG4QZMv1PM6xgQbdhZyICQ&ved=0ahUKEwjL2YfVu9v9AhXOWMAKHd0CB5EQ4dUDCA8&oq=credit+creation+theory+werner&gs_lcp=Cgxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAQDDIFCCEQoAEyBQghEKABOgoIABBHENYEELADOgcIABCwAxBDOgUIABCABDoECAAQQzoGCAAQFhAeOgUIABCGAzoICCEQFhAeEB06BwghEKABEAo6BAghEBU6BAghEApKBAhBGABQ4QJY9hlgjTJoAXABeACAAYMDiAGZC5IBBzAuNS4wLjKYAQCgAQHIAQrAAQE&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">See</a></p><div class="Banner" id="banner" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><button class="button-link button-link-secondary u-margin-s-ver text-s show-more-button" data-aa-button="icon-expand" id="show-more-btn" style="appearance: button; 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margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"></section><section class="ReferencedArticles" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; display: flex; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"></section><div class="PageDivider" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"></div><div class="Abstracts u-font-gulliver text-s" id="abstracts" style="--sd-ui-line-height: calc(1em + 10px); box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: ElsevierGulliver, Georgia, "Times New Roman", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Arial Unicode MS", serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="abstract author" id="ab0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">Abstract</h2><div id="as0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">This paper presents the first empirical evidence in the history of banking on the question of whether banks can create money out of nothing. The banking crisis has revived interest in this issue, but it had remained unsettled. Three hypotheses are recognised in the literature. According to the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory of banking</em>, banks are merely intermediaries like other non-bank financial institutions, collecting deposits that are then lent out. According to the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory of banking</em>, individual banks are mere financial intermediaries that cannot create money, but collectively they end up creating money through systemic interaction. A third theory maintains that each individual bank has the power to create money ‘out of nothing’ and does so when it extends credit (the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory of banking</em>). The question which of the theories is correct has far-reaching implications for research and policy. Surprisingly, despite the longstanding controversy, until now no empirical study has tested the theories. This is the contribution of the present paper. An empirical test is conducted, whereby money is borrowed from a cooperating bank, while its internal records are being monitored, to establish whether in the process of making the loan available to the borrower, the bank transfers these funds from other accounts within or outside the bank, or whether they are newly created. This study establishes for the first time empirically that banks individually create money out of nothing. The money supply is created as ‘fairy dust’ produced by the banks individually, "out of thin air</p></div></div></div><ul class="issue-navigation u-margin-s-bottom u-bg-grey1" id="issue-navigation" style="background-color: whitesmoke; box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; list-style: none; margin-bottom: 16px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 16px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><li class="next move-right u-padding-s-ver u-padding-s-right" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: right; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 16px !important; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 16px !important; padding-top: 16px !important; padding: 16px 16px 16px 0px; right: 0px;"><a class="button-alternative button-alternative-tertiary" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914000647" style="background-color: transparent; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; word-break: break-word;"><br /><svg aria-label="Navigate Right" class="icon icon-navigate-right u-fill-grey8" focusable="false" height="24" role="img" viewbox="0 0 54 128" width="10.125"><path d="m1 99l38-38-38-38 7-7 45 45-45 45z"></path></svg></a></li></ul><div class="Keywords u-font-gulliver text-s" style="--sd-ui-line-height: calc(1em + 10px); border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: ElsevierGulliver, Georgia, "Times New Roman", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Arial Unicode MS", serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px 0px 32px;"><div class="keywords-section" id="ks0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 24px; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 16px; margin: 16px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">Keywords</h2><div class="keyword" id="kw0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Bank credit</div><div class="keyword" id="kw0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Credit creation</div><div class="keyword" id="kw0060" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Financial intermediation</div><div class="keyword" id="kw0065" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Fractional reserve banking</div><div class="keyword" id="kw0070" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Money creation</div></div><div class="keywords-section" id="ks0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 24px; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 16px; margin: 16px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">JEL classification</h2><div class="keyword" id="kw0075" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">E30</div><div class="keyword" id="kw0080" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">E40</div><div class="keyword" id="kw0085" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">E50</div><div class="keyword" id="kw0090" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">E60</div></div></div><div class="Body u-font-gulliver text-s" id="body" style="--sd-ui-line-height: calc(1em + 10px); box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: ElsevierGulliver, Georgia, "Times New Roman", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Arial Unicode MS", serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1460" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"></p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The choice of a measure of value, of a monetary system, of currency and credit legislation — all are in the hands of society, and natural conditions … are relatively unimportant. Here, then, the decision-makers in society have the opportunity to directly demonstrate and test their economic wisdom — or folly. History shows that the latter has often prevailed.”<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0005" name="bfn0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">1</span></span></a></p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0635" name="bbb0635" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell (1922, p. 3)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><section id="s0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">1. Introduction</h2><p id="p0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Since the American and European banking crisis of 2007–8, the role of banks in the economy has increasingly attracted interest within and outside the disciplines of banking, finance and economics. This interest is well justified: Thanks to the crisis, awareness has risen that the most widely used <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/macroeconomic-model" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about macroeconomic models from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">macroeconomic models</a> and finance theories did not provide an adequate description of crucial features of our economies and financial systems, and, most notably, failed to include banks.</span><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0010" name="bfn0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span></a> These bank-less dominant theories are likely to have influenced bank regulators and may thus have contributed to sub-optimal bank regulation: Systemic issues emanating from the banking sector are impossible to detect in economic models that do not include banks, or in finance models that are based on individual, representative financial institutions without embedding these appropriately into macroeconomic models.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0015" name="bfn0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">3</span></span></a></p><p id="p0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Consequently, many researchers have since been directing their efforts at incorporating banks or banking sectors in economic models.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0020" name="bfn0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">4</span></span></a> This is a positive development, and the European Conferences on Banking and the Economy (ECOBATE) are contributing to this task, showcased in this second special issue, on ECOBATE 2013, held on 6 March 2013 in Winchester Guildhall and organised by the University of Southampton Centre for Banking, Finance and Sustainable Development. As the work in this area remains highly diverse, this article aims to contribute to a better understanding of crucial features of banks, which would facilitate their suitable incorporation in economic models. Researchers need to know which aspects of bank activity are essential — including important characteristics that may distinguish banks from non-bank financial institutions. In other words, researchers need to know whether banks are unique in crucial aspects, and if so, why.</p><p id="p0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In this paper the question of their potential ability to create money is examined, which is a candidate for a central distinguishing feature. A review of the literature identifies three different, mutually exclusive views on the matter, each holding sway for about a third of the twentieth century. The present conventional view is that banks are mere financial intermediaries that gather resources and re-allocate them, just like other non-bank financial institutions, and without any special powers. Any differences between banks and non-bank financial institutions are seen as being due to regulation and effectively so minimal that they are immaterial for modelling or for policy-makers. Thus it is thought to be permissible to model the economy without featuring banks directly. This view shall be called the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory of banking</em>. It has been the dominant view since about the late 1960s.</p><p id="p0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Between approximately the 1930s and the late 1960s, the dominant view was that the banking system is ‘unique’, since banks, unlike other financial intermediaries, can collectively create money, based on the fractional reserve or ‘money multiplier’ model of banking. Despite their collective power, however, each individual bank is in this view considered to be a mere financial intermediary, gathering deposits and lending these out, without the ability to create money. This view shall be called the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory of banking</em>.</p><p id="p0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">There is a third theory about the functioning of the banking sector, with an ascendancy in the first two decades of the 20th century. Unlike the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> and in line with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> it maintains that the banking system creates new money. However, it goes further than the latter and differs from it in a number of respects. It argues that each individual bank is not a financial intermediary that passes on deposits, or reserves from the central bank in its lending, but instead creates the entire loan amount out of nothing. This view shall be called the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory of banking</em>.</p><p id="p0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The three theories are based on a different description of how money and banking work and they differ in their policy implications. Intriguingly, the controversy about which theory is correct has never been settled. As a result, confusion reigns: Today we find central banks – sometimes the very same central bank – supporting different theories; in the case of the Bank of England, central bank staff are on record supporting each one of the three mutually exclusive theories at the same time, as will be seen below.</p><p id="p0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">It matters which of the three theories is right — not only for understanding and modelling the role of banks correctly within the economy, but also for the design of appropriate bank regulation that aims at sustainable economic growth without crises. The modern approach to bank regulation, as implemented at least since Basel I (1988), is predicated on the understanding that the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> is correct.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0025" name="bfn0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">5</span></span></a> Capital adequacy-based bank regulation, even of the counter-cyclical type, is less likely to deliver financial stability, if one of the other two banking hypotheses is correct.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0030" name="bfn0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">6</span></span></a> The capital-adequacy based approach to bank regulation adopted by the BCBS, as seen in Basel I and II, has so far not been successful in preventing major banking crises. If the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> is not an accurate description of reality, it would throw doubt on the suitability of Basel III and similar national approaches to bank regulation, such as in the UK.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0035" name="bfn0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">7</span></span></a></p><p id="p0045" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">It is thus of importance for research and policy to determine which of the three theories is an accurate description of reality. Empirical evidence can be used to test the relative merits of the theories. Surprisingly, no such test has so far been performed. This is the contribution of the present paper.</p><p id="p0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s0010" name="bs0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Section 2</span></a> provides an overview of relevant literature, differentiating authors by their adherence to one of the three banking theories. It will be seen that leading economists have gone on the record in support of each one of the theories. In <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s0015" name="bs0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Section 3</span></a>, I then present an empirical test that is able to settle the question of whether banks are unique and whether they can individually create money ‘out of nothing’. It involves the actual processing of a ‘live’ bank loan, taken out by the researcher from a representative bank that cooperates in the monitoring of its internal records and operations, allowing access to its documentation and accounting systems. The results and some implications are discussed in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s0025" name="bs0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Section 4</span></a>.</p></section><section id="s0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">2. The literature on whether banks can create money</h2><p id="p0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Much has been written on the role of banks in the economy in the past century and beyond. Often authors have not been concerned with the question of whether banks can create money, as they often simply assume their preferred theory to be true, without discussing it directly, let alone in a comparative fashion. This literature review is restricted to authors that have contributed directly and explicitly to the question of whether banks can create credit and money. During time periods when in the authors' countries banks issued promissory notes (bank notes) that circulated as paper money, writers would often, as a matter of course, mention, even if only in passing, that banks create or issue money. In England and Wales, the Bank Charter Act of 1844 forbade banks to “make any engagement for the payment of money payable to bearer on demand.” This ended bank note issuance for most banks in England and Wales, leaving the (until 1946 officially privately owned) Bank of England with a monopoly on bank note issuance. Meanwhile, the practice continued in the United States until the 20th century (and was in fact expanded with the similarly timed New York <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/currency-competition" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about Free Banking from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">Free Banking</a> Act of 1838), so that US authors would refer to bank note issuance as evidence of the money creation function of banks until much later.</span><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0040" name="bfn0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">8</span></span></a> For sake of clarity, our main interest in this paper is the question whether banks that <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">do not issue bank notes</em> are able to create money and credit out of nothing. As a result, earlier authors, writing mainly about paper money issuance, are only mentioned in passing here, even if it could be said that their arguments might also apply to banks that do not issue bank notes. These include <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0320" name="bbb0320" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">John Law (1705)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0515" name="bbb0515" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">James Steuart (1767)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0475" name="bbb0475" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Adam Smith (1776)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0525" name="bbb0525" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Henry Thornton (1802)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0550" name="bbb0550" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Thomas Tooke (1838)</span></a>, and <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0385" name="bbb0385" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Adam Müller (1816)</span></a>, among others, who either directly or indirectly state that banks can individually create credit (in line with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>).<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0045" name="bfn0045" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">9</span></span></a></p><section id="s0045" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0065" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">2.1. The credit creation theory of banking</h3><p id="p1175" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Influential early writers that argue that non-issuing banks have the power to individually create money and credit out of nothing wrote mainly in English or German, namely <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0625" name="bbb0625" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell, 1898</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0630" name="bbb0630" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell, 1907</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0665" name="bbb0665" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers (1909)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0450" name="bbb0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter (1912)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0375" name="bbb0375" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Moeller (1925)</span></a> and <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0225" name="bbb0225" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hahn (1920)</span></a>.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0050" name="bfn0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">10</span></span></a> The review of proponents of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> must start with Henry Dunning Macleod, of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Barrister at Law at the Inner Temple.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0055" name="bfn0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">11</span></span></a> Macleod produced an influential opus on banking, entitled <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Theory and Practice of Banking</em>, in two volumes. It was published in numerous editions well into the 20th century (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0330" name="bbb0330" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Macleod, 1855–6</span></a>; the quotes here are from the 6th edition of 1905). Concerning credit creation by individual banks, Macleod unequivocally argued that individual banks create credit and money out of nothing, whenever they do what is called ‘lending’:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0455" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“In modern times private bankers discontinued issuing notes, and merely created Credits in their customers' favour to be drawn against by Cheques. These Credits are in banking language termed Deposits. Now many persons seeing a material Bank Note, which is only a Right recorded on paper, are willing to admit that a Bank Note is cash. But, from the want of a little reflection, they feel a difficulty with regard to what they see as Deposits. They admit that a Bank Note is an “Issue”, and “Currency,” but they fail to see that a Bank Credit is exactly in the same sense equally an “Issue,” “Currency,” and “Circulation”.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0330" name="bbb0330" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Macleod (1905, vol. 2, p. 310</span></a>)</span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0460" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… Sir Robert Peel was quite mistaken in supposing that bankers only make advances out of <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">bona fide</em> capital. This is so fully set forth in the chapter on the Theory of Banking, that we need only to remind our readers that all banking advances are made, in the first instance, by <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: bolder; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">creating credit</span>” (p. 370, emphasis in original).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1180" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In his <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Theory of Credit</em> <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0335" name="bbb0335" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Macleod (1891)</span></a> put it this way:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0465" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“A bank is therefore not an office for “borrowing” and “lending” money, but it is a Manufactory of Credit.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0335" name="bbb0335" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Macleod (1891: II/2, 594)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1185" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">According to the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> then, banks create credit in the form of what bankers call ‘deposits’, and this credit is money. But how much credit can they create? <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0630" name="bbb0630" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell (1907)</span></a> described a credit-based economy in the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economic Journal</em>, arguing that</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0470" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The banks in their lending business are not only not limited by their own capital; they are not, at least not immediately, limited by any capital whatever; by concentrating in their hands almost all payments, they themselves create the money required….”</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0475" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“In a <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">pure</em> system of credit, where all payments were made by transference in the bank-books, the banks would be able to grant at any moment any amount of loans at any, however diminutive, rate of interest.”<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0060" name="bfn0060" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">12</span></span></a></p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0630" name="bbb0630" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell (1907, 214)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1190" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0665" name="bbb0665" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers (1909)</span></a>, from 1916 to 1921 the editor of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economist</em>, also saw few restraints on the amount of money banks could create out of nothing:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0480" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… it is a common popular mistake, when one is told that the banks of the United Kingdom hold over 900 millions of deposits, to open one's eyes in astonishment at the thought of this huge amount of cash that has been saved by the community as a whole, and stored by them in the hands of their bankers, and to regard it as a tremendous evidence of wealth. But this is not quite the true view of the case. Most of the money that is stored by the community in the banks consists of book-keeping credits lent to it by its bankers.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0665" name="bbb0665" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers (1909, pp. 57 ff.)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0485" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… The greater part of the banks' deposits is thus seen to consist, not of cash paid in, but of credits borrowed. For every loan makes a deposit ….”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0665" name="bbb0665" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers (1909, p. 63)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0490" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“When notes were the currency of commerce a bank which made an advance or discounted a bill gave its customer its own notes as the proceeds of the operation, and created a liability for itself. Now, a bank makes an advance or discounts a bill, and makes a liability for itself in the corresponding credit in its books.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0665" name="bbb0665" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers (1909, p. 66)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0495" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… It comes to this that, whenever a bank makes an advance or buys a security, it gives some one the right to draw a cheque upon it, which cheque will be paid in either to it or to some other banks, and so the volume of banking deposits as a whole will be increased and the cash resources of the banks as a whole will be unaltered.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0670" name="bbb0670" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers (1916, p. 45)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0500" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“When once this fact is recognised, that the banks are still, among other things, manufacturers of currency, just as much as they were in the days when they issued notes, we see how important a function the banks exercise in the economic world, because it is now generally admitted that the volume of currency created has a direct and important effect upon prices. This arises from what is called the “quantity theory” of money ….”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0670" name="bbb0670" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers (1916, p. 47)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0505" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“If, then, the quantity theory is, as I believe, broadly true, we see how great is the responsibility of the bankers as manufacturers of currency, seeing that by their action they affect, not only the convenience of their customers and the profits of their shareholders, but the general level of prices. If banks create currency faster than the rate at which goods are being produced, their action will cause a rise in prices which will have a perhaps disastrous effect ….”<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0065" name="bfn0065" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">13</span></span></a></p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0670" name="bbb0670" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers (1916, pp. 54 ff.)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0610" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“And so it becomes evident, as before stated, that the deposits of the banks which give the commercial community the right to draw cheques are chiefly created by the action of the banks themselves in lending, discounting, and investing” (pp. 71 ff.).</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0615" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… then, it thus appears that credit is the machinery by which a very important part of modern currency is created …” (p. 72).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1195" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Withers argues that the sovereign prerogative to manufacture the currency of the nation has effectively been <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">privatised</em> and granted to the commercial banks:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0520" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“By this interesting development the manufacture of currency, which for centuries has been in the hands of Government, has now passed, in regard to a very important part of it, into the hands of companies, working for the convenience of their customers and the profits of their shareholders.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0670" name="bbb0670" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers (1916, p. 40)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0160" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">While Withers was a financial journalist, his writings had a high circulation and likely contributed to the dissemination of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> in the form proposed by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0330" name="bbb0330" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Macleod (1855–6)</span></a>. This view also caught on in Germany with the publication of <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0450" name="bbb0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter's (1912, English 1934)</span></a> influential book <span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Theory </em><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/development-of-economics" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about of Economic Development from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">of Economic Development</a></em></span>, in which he was unequivocal in his view that each individual bank has the power to create money out of nothing.</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0125" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Something like a certificate of future output or the award of purchasing power on the basis of promises of the entrepreneur actually exists. That is the service that the banker performs for the entrepreneur and to obtain which the entrepreneur approaches the banker. … (The banker) would not be an intermediary, but <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">manufacturer of credit</em>, i.e. he would create himself the purchasing power that he lends to the entrepreneur …. One could say, without committing a major sin, that the banker creates money.”<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0070" name="bfn0070" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">14</span></span></a></p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0450" name="bbb0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter (1912, p. 197, emphasis in original)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0130" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“[C]redit is essentially the creation of purchasing power for the purpose of transferring it to the entrepreneur, but not simply the transfer of existing purchasing power. … By credit, entrepreneurs are given access to the social stream of goods before they have acquired the normal claim to it. And this function constitutes the keystone of the modern credit structure.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0455" name="bbb0455" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter (1954, p. 107)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0135" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The fictitious certification of products, which, as it were, the credit means of payment originally represented, has become truth.”<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0075" name="bfn0075" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">15</span></span></a></p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0450" name="bbb0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter (1912, p. 223)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1200" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">This view was also well represented across the Atlantic, as the writings of <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0160" name="bbb0160" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Davenport (1913)</span></a> or <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0260" name="bbb0260" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Robert H. Howe (1915)</span></a> indicate. <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0230" name="bbb0230" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hawtrey (1919)</span></a>, another leading British economist who like Keynes, had a Treasury background and moved into academia, took a clear stance in favour of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0140" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… for the manufacturers and others who have to pay money out, credits are still created by the exchange of obligations, the banker's immediate obligation being given to his customer in exchange for the customer's obligation to repay at a future date. We shall still describe this dual operation as the creation of credit. By its means the banker creates the means of payment out of nothing, whereas when he receives a bag of money from his customer, one means of payment, a bank credit, is merely substituted for another, an equal amount of cash” (p. 20).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1205" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Apart from Schumpeter, a number of other German-language authors also argued that banks create money and credit individually through the process of lending.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0080" name="bfn0080" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">16</span></span></a> Highly influential in both academic discourse and public debate was <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0225" name="bbb0225" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Dr. Albert L. Hahn (1920)</span></a>, scion of a Frankfurt banking dynasty (similarly to Thornton who had been a banker) and since 1919 director of the major family-owned Effecten- und Wechsel-Bank, Frankfurt. Like Macleod a trained lawyer, he became an honorary professor at Goethe-University Frankfurt in 1928. Clearly not only aware of the works of Macleod, whom he cites, but also likely aware of actual banking practice from his family business, Hahn argued that banks do indeed ‘create money out of nothing’:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0145" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Every credit that is extended in the economy creates a deposit and thus the means to fund it. … The conclusion from the process described can be expressed in reverse by saying … that every deposit that exists somewhere and somehow in the economy has come about by a prior extension of credit.”<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0085" name="bfn0085" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">17</span></span></a></p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0225" name="bbb0225" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hahn (1920, p. 28)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0150" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“We thus maintain – contrary to the entire literature on banking and credit – that the primary business of banks is not the liability business, especially the deposit business, but that in general and in each and every case an asset transaction of a bank must have previously taken place, in order to allow the possibility of a liability business and to cause it: The liability business of banks is nothing but a reflex of prior credit extension. The opposite view is based on a kind of optical illusion ….”<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0090" name="bfn0090" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">18</span></span></a></p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0225" name="bbb0225" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hahn (1920, p. 29)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0205" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Overall, Hahn probably did more than anyone to popularise the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> in Germany, his book becoming a bestseller, and spawning much controversy and new research among economists in Germany. It also greatly heightened awareness among journalists and the general public of the topic in the following decades. The broad impact of his book was likely one of the reasons why this theory remained entrenched in Germany, when it had long been discarded in the UK or the US, namely well into the post-war period. Hahn's book was however not just a popular explanation without academic credibility. Schumpeter cited it positively in the second (German) edition of his <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Theory of Economic Development</em> (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9990" name="bbb9990" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter, 1926</span></a>), praising it as a further development in line with, but beyond, his own book. The English translation of Schumpeter's influential book <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0450" name="bbb0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter (1912 [1934])</span></a> also favourably cites Hahn.</p><p id="p0210" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">It can be said that support for the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> appears to have been fairly widespread in the late 19th and early 20th century in English and German language academic publications. By 1920, the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> had become so widespread that it was dubbed the ‘current view’, the ‘traditional theory’ or the ‘time-worn theory of bank credit’ by later critics.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0095" name="bfn0095" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">19</span></span></a></p><p id="p1210" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The early Keynes seemed to also have been a supporter of this dominant view. In his <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Tract on Monetary Reform</em> (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0275" name="bbb0275" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes, 1924</span></a>), he asserts, apparently without feeling the need to establish this further, that banks create credit and money, at least in aggregate:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0155" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The internal <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/price-level" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about price level from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">price level</a> is mainly determined by the amount of credit created by the banks, chiefly the Big Five …” (p. 178).</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0160" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The amount of credit, so created, is in its turn roughly measured by the volume of the banks' deposits — since variations in this total must correspond to the variations in the total of their investments, bill-holdings, and advances” (p. 178).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1215" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">We know from Keynes' contribution to the <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0340" name="bbb0340" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Macmillan Committee (1931)</span></a> that Keynes meant with this that each individual bank was able to create credit:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0165" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“It is not unnatural to think of the deposits of a bank as being created by the public through the deposit of cash representing either savings or amounts which are not for the time being required to meet expenditure. But the bulk of the deposits arise out of the action of the banks themselves, for by granting loans, allowing money to be drawn on an overdraft or purchasing securities a bank creates a credit in its books, which is the equivalent of a deposit” (p. 34).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1220" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Concerning the banking system as a whole, this bank credit and deposit creation was thought to influence aggregate demand and the formation of prices, as <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0450" name="bbb0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter (1912)</span></a> had argued:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0170" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The volume of bankers' loans is elastic, and so therefore is the mass of purchasing power …. The banking system thus forms the vital link between the two aspects of the complex structure with which we have to deal. For it relates the problems of the price level with the problems of finance, since the price level is undoubtedly influenced by the mass of purchasing power which the banking system creates and controls, and by the structure of credit which it builds …. Thus, questions relating to the volume of purchasing power and questions relating to the distribution of purchasing power find a common focus in the banking system” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0340" name="bbb0340" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Macmillan Committee, 1931</span></a>, pp. 12 ff.).</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0175" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… if, finally, the banks pursue an easier <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/credit-policy" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about credit policy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">credit policy</a> and lend more freely to the business community, forces are set in motion increasing profits and wages, and therefore the possibility of additional spending arises” (p. 13).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1225" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Concerning the question whether credit demand or credit supply is more important, the report argued that the root cause is the movement of the supply of credit:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0180" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The expansion or contraction of the amount of credit made available by the banking system in other directions will, through a variety of channels, affect the ease of embarking on new investment propositions. This, in turn, will affect the volume and profitableness of business, and hence react in due course on the amount of accommodation required by industry from the banking system. … Thus what started as an alteration in the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">supply</em> of credit ends up in the guise of an alteration in the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">demand</em> for credit” (p. 99).<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0100" name="bfn0100" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">20</span></span></a></p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1230" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">While money is thus seen as endogenous to credit, when what is called a ‘bank loan’ is extended, the Committee argued that bank credit was exogenous as far as loan applicants are concerned:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“There can be no doubt as to the power of the banking system … to increase or decrease the volume of bank money” (p. 102).</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0190" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“In normal conditions we see no reason to doubt the capacity of the banking system to influence the volume of active investment by increasing the volume and reducing the cost of bank credit. … Thus we consider that in any ordinary times the power of the banking system … to increase or diminish the active employment of money in enterprise and investment is indisputable” (p. 102).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The Macmillan Committee also argued that bank credit could be manipulated by the Bank of England, and thus was also considered exogenous in this sense.</p><p id="p0285" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The credit creation theory remained influential until the early post-war years. The links of credit creation to macroeconomic and financial variables were later formalised in the Quantity Theory of Credit (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0570" name="bbb0570" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 1992</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0575" name="bbb0575" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 1997</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0580" name="bbb0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2005</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0605" name="bbb0605" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2012</span></a>), which argues that credit for (a) productive use in the form of investments for the production of goods and services is sustainable and non-inflationary, as well as less likely to become a non-performing loan, (b) unproductive use in the form of consumption results in consumer price inflation and (c) unproductive use in the form of asset transactions results in asset inflation and, if large enough, banking crises. However, since the 1920s serious doubts had spread about the veracity of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory of banking</em>. These doubts were initially uttered by economists who in principle supported the theory, but downplayed its significance. It is this group of writers that served as a stepping stone to the formulation of the modern <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>, which in its most widespread (and later) version however argues that individual banks cannot create credit, but only the banking system in aggregate. It is this theory about banks that we now turn to.</p></section><section id="s0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0070" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">2.2. The fractional reserve theory</h3><p id="p1235" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">An early proponent of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> was <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0345" name="bbb0345" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Alfred Marshall (1888)</span></a>. He testified to a government committee about the role of banks as follows:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0195" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“I should consider what part of its deposits a bank could lend and then I should consider what part of its loans would be redeposited with it and with other banks and, vice versa, what part of the loans made by other banks would be received by it as deposits. Thus I should get a geometrical progression; the effect being that if each bank could lend two thirds of its deposits, the total amount of loaning power got by the banks would amount to three times what it otherwise would be.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0345" name="bbb0345" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Marshall (1888)</span></a>, as quoted by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0690" name="bbb0690" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Yohe (1995, p. 530)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0305" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">With this, he contradicted Macleod's arguments. However, Marshall's view was still a minority view at the time. After the end of the First World War, a number of influential economists argued that the ‘Old Theory’ (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0400" name="bbb0400" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Phillips, 1920:72</span></a>) of bank credit creation by individual banks was mistaken. Their view gradually became more influential. “The theory of deposit expansion reached its zenith with the publication of C.A. Phillips' Bank Credit …” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0200" name="bbb0200" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Goodfriend, 1991</span></a>, as quoted by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0690" name="bbb0690" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Yohe, 1995, p. 532</span></a>).</p><p id="p1240" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0400" name="bbb0400" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Phillips (1920)</span></a> argued that it was important to distinguish between the theoretical possibility of an individual bank ‘manufacturing money’ by lending in excess to cash and reserves on the one hand, and, on the other, the banking system as a whole being able to do this. He argued that the ‘Old Theory’ (the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>) was</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0200" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“predicated upon the contention that a bank would be able to make loans to the extent of several times the amount of additional cash newly acquired and held <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">at the time the loans were made</em>, whereas a representative bank in a system is actually able ordinarily to lend an amount only roughly equal to such cash” (p. 72).<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0105" name="bfn0105" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">21</span></span></a></p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0320" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">According to <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0400" name="bbb0400" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Phillips (1920)</span></a>, individual banks cannot create credit or money, but collectively the banking system does so, as a new reserve is “split into small fragments, becomes dispersed among the banks of the system. Through the process of dispersion, it comes to constitute the basis of a manifold loan expansion” (p. 40). Each bank is considered mainly a financial intermediary: “… the banker … handles chiefly the funds of others” (pp. 4–5). Phillips argued that since banks target particular cash to deposit and reserve to deposit ratios (as cited in the money multiplier), which they wish to maintain, each bank effectively works as an intermediary, lending out as much as it is able to gather in new cash. Through the process of dispersion and re-iteration, the financial intermediation function of individual banks, without the power to create credit, adds up to an expansion in the money supply in aggregate.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0110" name="bfn0110" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">22</span></span></a></p><p id="p1245" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0150" name="bbb0150" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Crick (1927)</span></a> shared this conclusion (with some minor caveats). Thus he argued:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0205" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The important point, which is responsible for much of the controversy and most of the misunderstanding, is that while one bank receiving an addition to its cash cannot forthwith undertake a full multiple addition to its own deposits, yet the cumulative effect of the additional cash is to produce a full multiple addition to the deposits of all the banks as a whole” (p. 196).</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0210" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Summing up, then, it is clear … that the banks, so long as they maintain steady ratios of cash to deposits, are merely passive agents of the Bank of England policy, as far as the volume of money in the form of credit is concerned. … The banks … have very little scope for policy in the matter of expansion or contraction of deposits, though they have in the matter of disposition of resources between loans, investments and other assets. But this is not to say that the banks cannot and do not effect multiple additions to or subtractions from deposits as a whole on the basis of an expansion of or contraction in bank cash” (p. 201).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0340" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The role of banks remained disputed during the 1920s and 1930s, as several writers criticised the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>. Views not only diverged, but were also in a flux, as several experts apparently shifted their position gradually — overall an increasing number moving away from the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> and towards the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>.</p><p id="p1250" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Sir Josiah C. Stamp, a former director of the Bank of England, summarised the state of debate in his review of an article by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0405" name="bbb0405" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Pigou (1927)</span></a>:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0215" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The general public economic mind is in a fair state of muddlement at the present moment on the apparently simple question: “Can the banks create credit, and if so, how, and how much?” and between the teachings of Dr. Leaf and Mr. McKenna, Messrs. Keynes, Hawtrey, Cassel and Cannan and Gregory, people have not yet found their way.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0505" name="bbb0505" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Stamp (1927, p. 424)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1255" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Contributions to this debate were also made by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0420" name="bbb0420" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Dennis Robertson (1926)</span></a>, who was influenced by Keynes.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0115" name="bfn0115" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">23</span></span></a> <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes (1930)</span></a><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> explains the role of reserve holdings and the mechanics of determining a bank's behaviour based on its preference to hold cash and reserves, together with the amount of reserves provided by the central bank — the fairly predetermined mechanics postulated by the <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/money-supply-theory" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about money multiplier from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">money multiplier</a> in a fractional reserve model:</span></p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0220" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Thus in countries where the percentage of reserves to deposits is by law or custom somewhat rigid, we are thrown back for the final determination of M, the Volume of Bank-money on the factors which determine the amount of these reserves” (p. 77).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1260" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes (1930)</span></a> also backed a key component of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>, namely that banks gather deposits and place parts of them with the central bank, or, alternatively, may withdraw funds from their reserves at the central bank in order to lend these out to the non-banking sector of the economy:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0225" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“When a bank has a balance at the Bank of England in excess of its usual requirements, it can make an additional loan to the trading and manufacturing world, and this additional loan creates an additional deposit (to the credit of the borrower or to the credit of those to whom he may choose to transfer it) on the other side of the balance sheet of this or some other bank.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes (1930, vol. 2, p. 218)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0375" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Keynes here argues that new deposits, based on new loans, are dependent upon and connected to banks' reserve balances held at the central bank. This view is sometimes also supported by present-day central bankers, such as in Paul Tucker's or the ECB's proposal to introduce negative <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/interest-rate" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about interest rates from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">interest rates</a> on banks' reserve holdings at the central bank, as an incentive for them to ‘move’ their money from the central bank and increase lending.</span><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0120" name="bfn0120" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">24</span></span></a> Nevertheless, part of <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes (1930)</span></a>, and much of his most influential work, his <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">General Theory</em> (1936), appears more in line with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>, as will be discussed in the following section.</p><p id="p1265" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">A representative example of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> that at the same time was beginning to point in the direction of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> is the work by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0325" name="bbb0325" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Lutz (1939)</span></a>, who published in <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economica</em>, a forum for some of these debates at the time:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0230" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The expansion of the economic system leads to an increase in the volume of deposits to a figure far in excess of the amount of the additional cash in use, simply because the same cash is deposited with the banking system over and over again. … The fact that banking statistics show an aggregate of deposits far above the amount of cash in the banking system, is therefore not of itself a sign that the banks must have <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">created</em> the whole of the difference. This conclusion is also, of course, somehow implicit in the “multiple expansion” theory of the creation of bank deposits (of the Phillips or Crick variety). That theory explains the creation of deposits by the fact that the same cash (in decreasing amounts) is successively paid into different banks. It does, however, look upon this cash movement rather in the nature of a technical affair between banks … which would disappear if the separate banks were merged into one. In that case the deposits would be regarded as coming into existence by outright creation. In our example we assume throughout only one bank, and still the deposits grow out of the return, again and again, of the same cash <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">by the public</em>. … The force which really creates expansion is the trade credit given by producers to one another. … The bank plays the role of a mere intermediary.”</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0235" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">… This seems to lead not to a new, but to a very old theory of the function of banks: the function of a mere intermediary … (pp. 166 ff.).</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0240" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The modern idea of banks being able to create deposits seemed to be a startling departure from the view held by most economists in the nineteenth century. If, however, we approach this modern idea along the lines followed above, we find that it resolves itself into much the same elements as those which many of the older writers regarded as the essence of banking operations: the provision of confidence which induces the economic subjects to extend credit to each other by using the bank as an intermediary” (p. 169).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1270" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Phillips' influence has indeed been significant. Even in 1995 Goodfriend still argued that</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0245" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… Phillips showed that the summation of the loan- and deposit-creation series across all individual banks yields the multiple expansion formulas for the system as a whole. Phillips' definitive exposition essentially established the theory once and for all in the form found in economics textbooks today.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">as reprinted in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0690" name="bbb0690" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Yohe (1995, p. 535)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1275" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Statements like this became the mainstream view in the 1950s and 1960s.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0125" name="bfn0125" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">25</span></span></a> The view of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> in time also came to dominate textbook descriptions of the functioning of the monetary and banking system. There is no post-war textbook more representative and influential than that of <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0425" name="bbb0425" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Samuelson (1948)</span></a>. The original first edition is clear in its description of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>: Under the heading “Can banks really create money?”, Samuelson first dismisses “false explanations still in wide circulation” (p. 324):</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0250" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“According to these false explanations, the managers of an ordinary bank are able, by some use of their fountain pens, to lend several dollars for each dollar left on deposit with them. No wonder practical bankers see red when such behavior is attributed to them. They only wish they could do so. As every banker well knows, he cannot invest money that he does not have; and any money that he does invest in buying a security or making a loan will soon leave his bank” (p. 324).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1280" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Samuelson thus argues that a bank needs to gather the funds first, before it can extend bank loans. This is not consistent with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">. However, Samuelson argues that, in aggregate, the banking system creates money. He illustrates his argument with the example of a ‘small bank’ that faces a 20% <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/reserve-requirement" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about reserve requirement from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">reserve requirement</a>, and considering the accounts of the bank (B/S). If this bank receives a new cash deposit of $1000, “What can the bank now do?”, Samuelson asks (p. 325).</span></p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0255" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Can it expand its loans and investments by $4000 …?”</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0530" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The answer is definitely ‘no’. Why not? Total assets equal total liabilities. Cash reserves meet the legal requirement of being 20 per cent of total deposits. True enough. But how does the bank pay for the investments or earning assets that it buys? Like everyone else it writes out a check — to the man who sells the bond or signs the promissory note. … The borrower spends the money on labor, on materials, or perhaps on an automobile. The money will very soon, therefore, have to be paid out of the bank. … A bank cannot eat its cake and have it too. Table 4b gives, therefore a completely false picture of what an individual bank can do” (pp. 325 ff.).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1285" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Instead, Samuelson explains, since all the money lent out will leave the bank, an individual bank cannot create credit out of nothing:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0265" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“As far as this first bank is concerned, we are through. Its legal reserves are just enough to match its deposits. There is nothing more it can do until the public decides to bring in some more money on deposit” (p. 326).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1290" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">On the other hand, Samuelson emphasises that</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0270" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The banking system as a whole can do what each small bank cannot do!” (p. 324),</p></blockquote>namely create money. This, Samuelson explains via the iterative process of one bank's loans (based on prior deposits) becoming another bank's deposits, and so forth. He shows “this chain of deposit creation” in a table, amounting to total deposits in the banking system of $5000 (out of the $1000), due to the reserve requirement of 20% implying a ‘money multiplier’ of 5 times (assuming no cash ‘leakage’).<p></p><p id="p1295" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">What Samuelson calls the “multiple deposit expansion” is described in the same way and with remarkable similarity in the fifteenth edition of his book (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0440" name="bbb0440" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Samuelson & Nordhaus, 1995</span></a>) half a century later, only that the reserve requirement cited as example has been lowered to 10%: “All banks can do what one can't do alone” (p. 493). There are subtle though important differences. The overall space devoted to this topic is much smaller in 1995 compared to 1948. The modern textbook says that the central bank-created reserves are used by the banks “as an input” and then “transformed” “into a much larger amount of bank money” (p. 490). There is far less of an attempt to deal with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>. Instead, each bank is unambiguously represented as a pure financial intermediary, collecting deposits and lending out this money (minus the reserve requirement).<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0130" name="bfn0130" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">26</span></span></a> The <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> had become mainstream:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0275" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Each small bank is limited in its ability to expand its loans and investments. It cannot lend or invest more than it has received from depositors” (p. 496).</p></blockquote><p></p><div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p0470" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Meanwhile, bank deposit money is “supplied” by “the financial system” in an abstract process that each individual bank has little control over (p. 494). The unambiguous fractional reserve theory thus appears to have come about in the years after the 1950s. It can be described in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#f0005" name="bf0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Fig. 1</span></a>.</p><figure class="figure text-xs" id="f0005" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(185, 185, 185); border-top: 1px solid rgb(185, 185, 185); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.7rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px 0px 20px; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><img alt="" aria-describedby="ca1000" height="328" src="https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1057521914001070-gr1.jpg" style="border-style: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; margin: 0px 0px 16px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; width: auto;" /><ol class="u-margin-s-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style: none; margin-bottom: 16px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor download-link u-font-sans u-display-inline anchor-default" download="" href="https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1057521914001070-gr1.jpg" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank" title="Download full-size image"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Download : <span class="download-link-title" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Download full-size image</span></span></a></li></ol></span><span class="captions text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Fig. 1</span></figure></div><p id="p1300" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In this scheme, funds move between the public, the banks and the central bank without any barriers. Each bank is a financial intermediary, but in aggregate, due to fractional reserve banking, money is created (multiplied) in the banking system. Specifically, each bank can only grant a loan if it has previously received new reserves, of which a fraction will always be deposited with the central bank. It will then only be able to lend out as much as these excess reserves, as is made clear in major textbooks. In the words of <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0520" name="bbb0520" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Stiglitz (1997)</span></a>:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“It should be clear that when there are many banks, no individual bank can create multiple deposits. Individual banks may not even be aware of the role they play in the process of multiple-deposit creation. All they see is that their deposits have increased and therefore they are able to make more loans” (p. 737).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1305" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In another textbook on money and banking:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0285" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“In this example, a person went into bank 1 and deposited a $100,000 check drawn on another bank. That $100,000 became part of the reserves of bank 1. Because that deposit immediately created excess reserves, further loans were possible for bank 1. Bank 1 lent the excess reserves to earn interest. A bank will not lend more than its excess reserves because, by law, it must hold a certain amount of required reserves.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0365" name="bbb0365" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Miller and VanHoose (1993, p. 331)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1310" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The deposit of a cheque from another bank does not however increase the “total amounts of deposits and money”:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0290" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Remember, though, that the deposit was a check written on another bank. Therefore, the other bank suffered a decline in its transactions deposits and its reserves. While total assets and liabilities in bank 1 have increased by $100,000, they have decreased in the other bank by $100,000. <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Thus the total amount of money and credit in the economy is unaffected by the transfer of funds from one depository institution to another</em>. Each depository institution can create loans (and deposits) only to the extent that it has excess reserves. The thing to remember is that new reserves are not created when checks written on one bank are deposited in another bank. The Federal Reserve System, however, can create new reserves” (p. 331).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="sp9290" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The textbook by Heffernan (1996) says:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp9285" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“To summarise, all modern banks act as intermediaries between borrowers and lenders, but they may do so in a variety of different ways, from the traditional function of taking deposits and lending a percentage of these deposits, to fee-based financial services” (p. 18).</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp9980" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“For the bank, which pools these surplus funds, there is an opportunity for profit through fractional reserve lending, that is, lending out money at an interest rate which is higher than what the bank pays on the deposit, after allowing for the riskiness of the loan and the cost of intermediation” (p. 20).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1315" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">While the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> succeeded in attracting many followers, rendering it an important and influential theory until this day, it is not famous for its clarity:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0295" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The problem of the manner in which the banking system increases the total volume of the circulating medium, while at the same time the lending power of the individual banks is severely limited, has proved to be one of the most baffling for writers on banking theory.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0370" name="bbb0370" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Mints (1945, p. 39)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0515" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Several attempts were made to resolve this within the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> of banking, such as that by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0445" name="bbb0445" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Saving (1977)</span></a>, who rendered the supply of bank deposits a function of the behaviour of the savers — arguing that the money supply is endogenous. This effectively pushed out the intermediary function from the individual bank level to the economy level, and helped ushering in the formulation of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> to which we now turn.</p></section><section id="s0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0075" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">2.3. The financial intermediation theory</h3><p id="p1320" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">While the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> of banking was influential from the 1930s to the 1960s, Keynes may have sown important seeds of doubt. Already in his ‘Treatise’, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes (1930)</span></a> makes use of inverted commas in order to refer, suggestively, to ‘The “Creation” of Bank-Money’ (a section title). This rhetorical device, employed by the expert already hailed as the leading economist in the world, implied disapproval, as well as mockery of the concept that banks could create money out of nothing. The device was copied by many other writers after Keynes who also emphasised the role of banks as ‘financial intermediaries’. In Keynes' words:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0300" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“A banker is in possession of resources which he can lend or invest equal to a large proportion (nearly 90%) of the deposits standing to the credit of his depositors. In so far as his deposits are Savings-deposits, he is acting merely as an intermediary for the transfer of loan-capital. In so far as they are Cash-deposits, he is acting both as a provider of money for his depositors, and also as a provider of resources for his borrowing-customers. Thus the modern banker performs two distinct sets of services. He supplies a substitute for State Money by acting as a clearing-house and transferring current payments backwards and forwards between his different customers by means of book-entries on the credit and debit sides. But he is also acting as a middleman in respect of a particular type of lending, receiving deposits from the public which he employs in purchasing securities, or in making loans to industry and trade mainly to meet demands for working capital. This duality of function is the clue to many difficulties in the modern Theory of Money and Credit and the source of some serious confusions of thought.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes (1930, vol. 2, p. 213)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1325" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The Keynes of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Treatise</em> seems to say that the two functions of banks are to either act as financial intermediary fulfilling the utility banking function of settling trades, or to act as financial intermediary gathering deposits and lending the majority of these out. There seems no money creation at all involved, certainly not on the individual bank level. Keynes' most influential opus, <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">General Theory</em> (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0285" name="bbb0285" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes, 1936</span></a>) quickly eclipsed his earlier <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Treatise on Money</em> in terms of its influence on public debate. In the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">General Theory</em>, Keynes did not place any emphasis on banks, which he now argued were financial intermediaries that needed to acquire deposits before they could lend:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0305" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The notion that the creation of credit by the banking system allows investment to take place to which ‘no genuine saving’ corresponds can only be the result of isolating one of the consequences of the increased bank-credit to the exclusion of the others. … It is impossible that the intention of the entrepreneur who has borrowed in order to increase investment can become effective (except in substitution for investment by other entrepreneurs which would have occurred otherwise) at a faster rate than the public decide to increase their savings. … No one can be compelled to own the additional money corresponding to the new bank-credit, unless he deliberately prefers to hold more money rather than some other form of wealth. … Thus the old-fashioned view that saving always involves investment, though incomplete and misleading, is formally sounder than the newfangled view that there can be saving without investment or investment without ‘genuine’ saving.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0285" name="bbb0285" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes (1936, pp. 82 ff.)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1330" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0455" name="bbb0455" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter (1954)</span></a> commented on this shift in Keynes' view:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0315" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The “deposit-creating bank loan and its role in the financing of investment <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">without any previous saving up of the sums thus lent</em><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> have practically disappeared in the analytic schema of the General Theory, where it is again the saving public that holds the scene. Orthodox <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/keynesian-economics" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about Keynesianism from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">Keynesianism</a> has in fact reverted to the old view …. Whether this spells progress or retrogression, every economist must decide for himself” (p. 1115, italics in original).</span></p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0560" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The early post-war period saw unprecedented influence of Keynes' General Theory, and a Keynesian school of thought that managed to ignore Keynes' earlier writings on bank credit creation, became dominant in academia. Given that a former major proponent of both the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation</em> and the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theories</em> of banking had shifted his stance to the new <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>, it is not surprising that others would follow.</p><p id="p1335" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">A highly influential challenge to the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> of banking was staged by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0215" name="bbb0215" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Gurley and Shaw, 1955</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9090" name="bbb9090" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Gurley and Shaw, 1960</span></a><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">. They rejected the view that “banks stand apart in their ability to create loanable funds out of hand while other intermediaries in contrast are busy with the modest <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/brokerage" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about brokerage from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">brokerage</a> function of transmitting loanable funds that are somehow generated elsewhere” (1955, p. 521). Beyond the usual rhetorical devices to denigrate the alternative theories, Gurley and Shaw's actual argument was that banks should not be singled out as being ‘special’, since the banks' financial intermediation function is identical to that of other financial intermediaries:</span></p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0320" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“There are many similarities between the monetary system and nonmonetary intermediaries, and the similarities are more important than the differences. Both types of financial institutions create financial claims; and both may engage in multiple creation of their particular liabilities in relation to any one class of asset that they hold.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Gurley and Shaw (1960, p. 202)</span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0575" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Banks and the banking system, we are told, like other financial intermediaries, need to first gather deposits, and then are able to lend these out. In this view, any remaining special role of banks is due to outmoded regulations, which treat banks differently. Therefore, they argue, the Federal Reserve should extend its banking supervision to the growing set of non-bank financial intermediaries, thus treating them equally to banks.</p><p id="p0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Initial challenges by proponents of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> of banking (see <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0220" name="bbb0220" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Guttentag & Lindsay, 1968</span></a>) were swept away during the 1960s, when James Tobin, a new rising star in economics, took a clear stand to proclaim another ‘new view’ of banking, formulating the modern version of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> of banking.</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0325" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0535" name="bbb0535" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Tobin (1963)</span></a>, standing atop the wreckage in 1963 to set forth the ‘new view’ of commercial banking, stands squarely with Gurley and Shaw against the traditional view.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0220" name="bbb0220" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Guttentag and Lindsay (1968, p. 993)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1340" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Like Keynes, Alhadreff and others before him, Tobin only referred to bank credit creation in inverted commas, and used rhetorical devices to ridicule the idea that banks, individually or collectively, could create money and credit. <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0535" name="bbb0535" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Tobin (1963)</span></a> argued:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0330" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Neither individually nor collectively do commercial banks possess a widow's cruse” (p. 412).</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0335" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The distinction between commercial banks and other financial intermediaries has been too sharply drawn. The differences are of degree, not of kind …. In particular, the differences which do exist have little intrinsically to do with the monetary nature of bank liabilities … The differences are more importantly related to the special reserve requirements and interest rate ceilings to which banks are subject. Any other financial industry subject to the same kind of regulations would behave in much the same way” (p. 418).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0605" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Banks only seem to be different from others, because regulators erroneously chose to single them out for special regulation. In Tobin's view, “commercial banks are different, because they are controlled, and not the other way around” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0220" name="bbb0220" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Guttentag & Lindsay, 1968, p. 993</span></a>). <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0545" name="bbb0545" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Tobin and Brainard's (1963)</span></a> portfolio model made no distinction between banks and non-bank financial intermediaries, indeed, ignored the role of banks altogether and contributed much towards the modern mainstream view of economics models without banks. <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0120" name="bbb0120" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Branson (1968)</span></a> further developed Tobin's new approach, which was popular in the leading journals.</p><p id="p0610" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0220" name="bbb0220" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Guttentag and Lindsay (1968)</span></a> wrote in the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Political Economy</em> that despite the challenge by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0215" name="bbb0215" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Gurley and Shaw (1955)</span></a> “The uniqueness issue, on the other hand, remains unsettled” (p. 992). Banks, they argued, are different in their role and impact from non-bank financial intermediaries, since “commercial banks have a greater capacity for varying the aggregate volume of credit than other financial intermediaries” (p. 991). “These points provide a rationale for special controls on commercial banks that goes beyond the need to prevent financial panic. It is the rationale that has been sought by defenders of the traditional view that commercial banks are ‘unique’ ever since the Gurley–Shaw challenge to this view” (p. 991).</p><p id="p0615" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Undaunted, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0540" name="bbb0540" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Tobin (1969)</span></a><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> re-states his view in an article establishing his <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/asset-market-approach-of-the-exchange-rate" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about portfolio balance approach from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">portfolio balance approach</a> to financial markets, which argues that financial markets are complex webs of assets and prices, leaving banks as one of many types of intermediaries, without any special role.</span><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0135" name="bfn0135" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">27</span></span></a> This was the first article in the first edition of a new journal, the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Money, Credit and Banking</em>. While its name may suggest openness towards the various theories of banking, in practice it has only published articles that did not support the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> and were mainly in line with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>. This is also true for most other journals classified as ‘leading journals’ in economics (for instance, using the 4-rated journals from the UK Association of Business Schools list in economics). Henceforth, the portfolio balance approach, which treated all financial institutions as mere portfolio managers, was to hold sway. It helped the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> become the dominant creed among economists world-wide.</p><p id="p0620" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Modern proponents of the ubiquitous <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> include, among others, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0295" name="bbb0295" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Klein (1971)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0380" name="bbb0380" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Monti (1972)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0460" name="bbb0460" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Sealey and Lindley (1977)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0170" name="bbb0170" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond and Dybvig, 1983</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0165" name="bbb0165" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond, 1984</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9015" name="bbb9015" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond, 1991</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9020" name="bbb9020" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond, 2007, Spring</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0185" name="bbb0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Eatwell, Milgate, and Newman (1989)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0210" name="bbb0210" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Gorton and Pennacchi (1990)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0090" name="bbb0090" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bencivenga and Smith (1991)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0105" name="bbb0105" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bernanke and Gertler (1995)</span></a>, Rajan (1998), <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0390" name="bbb0390" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Myers and Rajan (1998)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0015" name="bbb0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen and Gale, 2000</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0020" name="bbb0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen and Gale, 2004a</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0025" name="bbb0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen and Gale, 2004b</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0030" name="bbb0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen and Santomero (2001)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0175" name="bbb0175" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond and Rajan (2001)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0270" name="bbb0270" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Kashyap et al., 2002</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9145" name="bbb9145" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hoshi and Kashyap, 2004</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0355" name="bbb0355" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Matthews and Thompson (2005)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0135" name="bbb0135" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Casu and Girardone, 2006</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9000" name="bbb9000" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Dewatripont et al, 2010</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0195" name="bbb0195" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Gertler and Kiyotaki (2011)</span></a> and <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0510" name="bbb0510" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Stein (2014)</span></a>. There are many more: It is impossible to draw up a conclusive list, since the vast majority of articles published in leading economics and finance journals in the last thirty to forty years is based on the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> as premise.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0140" name="bfn0140" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">28</span></span></a></p><p id="p1345" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Quoting only a few examples, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0295" name="bbb0295" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Klein (1971)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0380" name="bbb0380" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Monti (1972)</span></a> (later to become EU commissioner and prime minister of Italy), and others model banks as financial intermediaries, gathering deposits and lending these funds out:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0340" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The bank has two primary sources of funds; the equity originally invested in the firm … and borrowed funds secured through the issuance of various types of deposits ….”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0295" name="bbb0295" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Klein (1971, p. 208)</span></a></span></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0345" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… It will be shown how the bank determines the prices it will pay for various types of deposits and how these prices, in conjunction with the deposit supply functions the bank confronts, determine the scale and composition of the bank's deposit liabilities the bank will assume.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0295" name="bbb0295" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Klein (1971, p. 210)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0640" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0170" name="bbb0170" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond and Dybvig (1983)</span></a> are cited as the seminal work on banking, and they argue that “Illiquidity of assets provides the rationale both for the existence of banks and for their vulnerability to runs” (p. 403). But in actual fact their theory makes no distinction between banks and non-banks. They therefore are unable to explain why we have heard of bank runs, but not of ‘insurance runs’ or ‘finance company runs’, although the latter also hold illiquid assets and give out loans. Diamond and Dybvig fail to identify what could render banks special since they assume that they are not.</p><p id="p1350" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Other theories of banks as financial intermediaries are presented by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0360" name="bbb0360" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Mayer (1988)</span></a> and <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0245" name="bbb0245" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hellwig, 1977</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0250" name="bbb0250" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hellwig, 1991</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0255" name="bbb0255" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hellwig, 2000</span></a>, who also believe that banks are merely financial intermediaries:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0350" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The analysis uses the original model of <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0165" name="bbb0165" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond (1984)</span></a> of financial contracting with <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">intermediation as delegated monitoring</em>. … Monitoring is assumed to be too expensive to be used by the many households required to finance a firm or an intermediary. However direct finance of firms based on nonpecuniary penalties may be dominated by intermediated finance with monitoring of firms by an intermediary who in turn obtains funds from households through contracts involving nonpecuniary penalties.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0255" name="bbb0255" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hellwig (2000, pp. 721 ff.)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1355" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Banking expert <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0235" name="bbb0235" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Heffernan (1996)</span></a> states:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0365" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The existence of the “traditional” bank, which intermediates between borrower and lender, and which offers a payments service to its customers, fits in well with the Coase theory” (p. 21).</p></blockquote>… or a leading textbook on international economics and finance, by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0315" name="bbb0315" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Krugman and Obstfeld (2000)</span></a>:<blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0370" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Banks use depositors' funds to make loans and to purchase other assets …” (p. 659).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1360" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">A widely used reference work on banking and money – the New Palgrave <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Money</em> (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0185" name="bbb0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Eatwell et al., 1989</span></a>) – contains a number of contributions by leading monetary economists and banking experts. In it, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0045" name="bbb0045" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Baltensperger (1989)</span></a> clearly supports the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0375" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The role of credit as such must be clearly separated from the <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/role-of-economics" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about economic role of from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">economic role of</a> credit institutions, such as banks, playing the role of specialised intermediaries in the credit market by buying and simultaneously selling credit instruments (of a different type and quality). Since the ultimate borrowers and lenders can, in principle, do business with each other directly, without the help of such an intermediary, the function of these middlemen must be viewed as separate from that of credit as such. Two main functions of institutions of this kind can be distinguished. The first is the function of risk consolidation and transformation. … The second major function of these institutions is that of a broker in the credit markets. As such, they specialise in producing intertemporal exchange transactions and owe their existence to their ability to bring together creditors and debtors at lower costs than the latter can achieve in direct transactions themselves” (pp. 100 ff.).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1365" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Indeed, almost all authors in this reference book refer to banks as mere financial intermediaries, even <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0205" name="bbb0205" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Goodhart (1989)</span></a>:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0380" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“‘Intermediation’ generally refers to the interposition of a financial institution in the process of transferring funds between ultimate savers and ultimate borrowers. … Disintermediation is then said to occur when some intervention, usually by government agencies for the purpose of controlling, or regulating, the growth of financial intermediaries, lessens their advantages in the provision of financial services, and drives financial transfers and business into other channels. … An example of this is to be found when onerous reserve requirements on banks lead them to raise the margin (the spread) between deposit and lending rates, in order to maintain their profitability, so much that the more credit-worthy borrowers are induced to raise short-term funds directly from savers, for example, in the commercial paper market” (p. 144).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1370" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0390" name="bbb0390" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Myers and Rajan (1998)</span></a> state:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0385" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“We model the intermediary as a bank that borrows from a number of individual investors for its own core business and to lend on to a project. … Even though the bank can extract more from the ultimate borrower, the bank has to finance these loans by borrowing from individual investors” (p. 755).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1375" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0030" name="bbb0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen and Santomero (2001)</span></a>, in their paper entitled ‘What do financial intermediaries do?’ state:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0390" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“In this paper we use these observations as a starting point for considering what it is that financial intermediaries do. At center, of course, financial systems perform the function of reallocating the resources of economic units with surplus funds (savers) to economic units with funding needs (borrowers)” (p. 272).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0725" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9550" name="bbb9550" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Kashyap (2002)</span></a> also believes that banks are pure financial intermediaries, not materially distinguishable from other non-bank financial institutions.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0145" name="bfn0145" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">29</span></span></a></p><p id="p1380" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0510" name="bbb0510" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Stein (2014)</span></a> states, albeit with some hesitation:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0395" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… at least in some cases, it seems that a bank's size is determined by its deposit franchise, and that, taking these deposits as given, its problem then becomes one of how best to invest them” (p. 5).</p></blockquote><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0400" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Overall, our synthesis of these stylised facts is that banks are in the business of taking deposits and investing these deposits in fixed-income assets that have certain well-defined risk and liquidity attributes but which can be either loans or securities” (p. 7).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1385" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> includes the ‘credit view’ in macroeconomics, proposing a ‘bank lending channel’ of monetary transmission (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0110" name="bbb0110" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bernanke and Blinder, 1989</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0105" name="bbb0105" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bernanke and Gertler, 1995</span></a><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">), as well as the neo-classical and new classical <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/macroeconomic-model" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about macroeconomic models from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">macroeconomic models</a> (if they consider banks at all). To these and most contemporary authors in economics and finance, banks are financial intermediaries like other firms in the financial sector, which focus on the ‘transformation’ of liabilities with particular features into assets with other features (e.g. with respect to maturity, liquidity and quantity/size), or which focus on ‘monitoring’ others (</span><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0470" name="bbb0470" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Sheard, 1989</span></a>, another adherent of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory of banking</em><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">), but do not create credit individually or collectively. This is true for many ‘Post-Keynesians’ who argue that the money supply is determined by the <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/demand-for-money" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about demand for money from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">demand for money</a>. It is also true for popular descriptions, such as that by </span><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0310" name="bbb0310" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Koo and Fujita (1997)</span></a> who argue that banks are merely financial intermediaries:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0405" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“But those financial institutions that are counterparties of the Bank of Japan obtain their funding primarily from the money that depositors have deposited with them. This money they cannot pass on for consumption and capital investment, because they have to lend it at interest to earn money. In other words, for this money to support the economy, these financial institutions must lend it to firms and individuals. Those borrowers must then use it to buy assets such as machinery or housing or services” (p. 31).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p0755" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">A recent paper by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0010" name="bbb0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen, Carletti, and Gale (2014)</span></a> introduces money — albeit only cash created by the central bank, while banks are mere financial intermediaries that cannot create money or credit.</p><p id="p1390" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">As a result, the leading forecasting models used by policy makers also do not include banks (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0050" name="bbb0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bank of England, 2014a</span></a>). Even the original meaning of credit creation seems forgotten by the modern literature: <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0100" name="bbb0100" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bernanke (1993)</span></a> uses the expression ‘credit creation’ much in his article, but explains that this concept is defined as “the process by which saving is channeled to alternative uses”, i.e. financial intermediation of savers' deposits into loans:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0525" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“This fortuitous conjunction of events and ideas has contributed to an enhanced appreciation of the role of credit in the macroeconomy by most economists and policymakers. The purpose of this paper is to review and interpret some recent developments in our understanding of the macroeconomic role of credit or, more accurately, of the credit creation process. By <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation process</em><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> I mean the process by which, in exchange for paper claims, the savings of specific individuals or firms are made available for the use of other individuals or firms (for example to make capital investments or simply to consume). Note that I am drawing a strong distinction between credit creation, which is the process by which saving is channeled to alternative uses, and the act of saving itself …. In my broad conception of the credit creation process I include most of the value-added of the financial industry, including the information-gathering, screening, and monitoring activities required to make sound loans or investments, as well as much of the risk-sharing, maturity transformation, and liquidity provision services that attract savers and thus support the basic lending and investment functions. I also want to include in my definition of the credit creation process activities undertaken by potential borrowers to transmit information about themselves to lenders: for example, for firms, these activities include provision of data to the public, internal or external auditing, capital structure decisions, and some aspects of <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/corporate-governance" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about corporate governance from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">corporate governance</a>. The </span><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">efficiency</em> of the credit creation process is reflected both in its ability to minimise the direct costs of extending credit (for example, the aggregate wage bill of the financial industry) and in the degree to which it is able to channel an economy's savings into the most productive potential uses. The presumption of traditional macroeconomic analysis is that this credit creation process, through which funds are transferred from ultimate savers to borrowers, works reasonably smoothly and therefore can usually be ignored.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0100" name="bbb0100" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bernanke (1993, pp. 50 ff.)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1395" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">As Bernanke points out, those works that assume such a financial intermediation role for banks will therefore often ignore banks entirely: they cannot be particularly important or relevant in the economy. Many went as far as to leave out any kind of money (there are no monetary aggregates in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0290" name="bbb0290" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Kiyotaki and Moore, 1997</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0685" name="bbb0685" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Woodford, 2003</span></a>). The most widely used textbook in advanced Master-level economics at leading British universities in 2010 was <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0430" name="bbb0430" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Romer (2006)</span></a>. On page 3, Romer tells us:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0410" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Incorporating money in models of [economic] growth would only obscure the analysis” (p. 3).</p></blockquote><p></p></section><section id="s0060" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0080" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">2.4. Conclusion of the literature review</h3><p id="p0785" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Since the 1960s it has become the conventional view not to consider banks as unique and able to create money, but instead as mere financial intermediaries like other financial firms, in line with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory of banking</em>. Banks have thus been dropped from economics models, and finance models have not suggested that bank action has significant macroeconomic effects. The questions of where money comes from and how the money supply is created and allocated have remained unaddressed.</p><p id="p0790" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The literature review has identified a gradual progression of views from the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> to the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> to the present-day ubiquitous <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>. The development has not been entirely smooth; several influential writers have either changed their views (on occasion several times) or have shifted between the theories. Keynes, as an influential economist, did little to enhance clarity in this debate, as it is possible to cite him in support of each of the three hypotheses, through which he seems to have moved sequentially.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0150" name="bfn0150" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">30</span></span></a> Some institutions, such as the Bank of England, manage to issue statements in support of all three theories.</p><p id="p0795" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">We conclude from the literature survey that all three theories of banking have been well represented in the course of the 20th century, by leading figures of the day. However, the conclusion by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0505" name="bbb0505" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Sir Josiah Stamp (1927)</span></a>, a director at the Bank of England, still seems to hold today, namely that there is “a fair state of muddlement … on the apparently simple question: ‘Can the banks create credit, and if so, how, and how much?’” Despite a century or so of theorising on the matter, there has been little progress in establishing facts unambiguously. Thus today the conclusion of 1968 applies, namely that the issue cannot be considered as ‘settled’. It is possible that the pendulum is about to swing away from the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> to one of the other two. But how can we avoid that history will merely repeat itself and the profession will spend another century locked into a debate without firm conclusion?</p><p id="p0800" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">How can the issue be settled and the ‘muddlement’ cleared up? One reason for this “state of muddlement” is likely to be the methodology dominant in 20th century economics, namely the hypothetico-deductive method. Unproven ‘axioms’ are ‘posed’ and unrealistic assumptions added, to build a theoretical model. This can be done for all three theories, and we would be none the wiser about which of them actually applied. How can the issue be settled? The only way the facts can be established is to leave the world of deductive theoretical models and consider empirical reality as the arbiter of truth, in line with the inductive methodology. In other words, it is to empirical evidence we must turn to settle the issue.</p></section></section><section id="s0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">3. The empirical test</h2><p id="p0805" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The simplest possible test design is to examine a bank's internal accounting during the process of granting a bank loan. When all the necessary bank credit procedures have been undertaken (starting from ‘know-your-customer’ and anti-money laundering regulations to credit analysis, risk rating to the negotiation of the details of the loan contract) and signatures are exchanged on the bank loan, the borrower's current account will be credited with the amount of the loan. The key question is whether as a prerequisite of this accounting operation of booking the borrower's loan principal into their bank account the bank actually withdraws this amount from another account, resulting in a reduction of equal value in the balance of another entity — either drawing down reserves (as the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> maintains) or other funds (as the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> maintains). Should it be found that the bank is able to credit the borrower's account with the loan principal without having withdrawn money from any other internal or external account, or without transferring the money from any other source internally or externally, this would constitute prima facie evidence that the bank was able to create the loan principal out of nothing. In that case, the credit creation theory would be supported and the theory that the individual bank acts as an intermediary that needs to obtain savings or funds first, before being able to extend credit (whether in conformity with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> or the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>), would be rejected.</p><section id="s0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">3.1. Expected results</h3><p id="p0810" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">With a bank loan of €200,000, drawn by the researcher from a bank, the following changes in the lending bank's accounting entries are expected a priori according to each theory:</p><dl class="list" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">(a)</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1400" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Bank credit accounting according to the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>.</p><div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1405" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">According to this theory, banks behave very differently from financial intermediaries, such as stock brokers, since they do not separate customer funds from own funds. Money ‘deposited’ with a bank becomes the legal property of the bank and the ‘depositor’ is actually a lender to the bank, ranking among the general creditors. When extending bank credit, banks create an imaginary deposit, by recording the loan amount in the borrower's account, although no new deposit has taken place (credit creation out of nothing). The balance sheet lengthens. Cash, central bank reserves or balances with other banks are not immediately needed, as reserve and capital requirements only need to be met at particular measurement intervals. The account changes are shown in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0005" name="bt0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 1</span></a>.</p><div class="tables frame-topbot colsep-0 rowsep-0" id="t0005" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-top: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="captions text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 16px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span id="ca0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span class="label" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Table 1</span>. Account changes due to bank loan (<em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>).</p></span></span><div class="groups" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 16px 0px; overflow-x: auto; padding: 0px;"><img alt="" height="60" src="https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1057521914001070-t1.jpg" style="border-style: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; width: auto;" /></div></div></div></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">(b)</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1410" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Bank credit accounting according to the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>.</p><div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1415" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The distinguishing feature of this theory is that each individual bank cannot create credit out of nothing. The bank is a financial intermediary indistinguishable from other financial intermediaries, such as stock brokers and securities firms. However, banks are said to be different in one respect, namely the regulatory treatment: regulators have placed onerous rules concerning reserves that have to be held with the central bank only on banks, not other financial intermediaries. A bank can only lend money, when it has previously received the same amount in excess reserves from another bank, whose own reserve balances will have declined, or from the central bank (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0010" name="bt0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 2</span></a>).</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0415" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“A bank will not lend more than its excess reserves because, by law, it must hold a certain amount of required reserves. … Each depository institution can create loans (and deposits) only to the extent that it has excess reserves.”</p><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0365" name="bbb0365" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Miller and VanHoose (1993, p. 331)</span></a></span></blockquote><p></p><div class="tables frame-topbot colsep-0 rowsep-0" id="t0010" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-top: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="captions text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 16px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span id="ca0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span class="label" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Table 2</span>. Account changes due to bank loan (<em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>).</p></span></span><div class="groups" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 16px 0px; overflow-x: auto; padding: 0px;"><img alt="" height="139" src="https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1057521914001070-t2.jpg" style="border-style: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; width: auto;" /></div></div></div><p id="p0840" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Following the exposition in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0365" name="bbb0365" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Miller and VanHoose (1993, pp. 330–331)</span></a>, the balance sheet evolution in case of a €200,000 loan is as shown in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0010" name="bt0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 2</span></a>.</p><p id="p0845" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In other words, for the bank to be able to make a loan, it first has to check its excess reserves, as this is, according to this theory, a strictly binding requirement and limitation, as well as its distinguishing feature. The bank cannot at any moment lend more money than its excess reserves, and it will have to draw down the reserve balance to lend. (Thus, as noted, another distinguishing feature is that the balance sheet expansion is driven by the prior increase in a deposit that boosted excess reserves, <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">not</em> by the granting of a loan).</p><p id="p0850" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">It needs to be verified when the empirical test of bank lending is implemented, whether the bank first confirmed the precise amount of its available excess reserves before entering into the loan contract or paying out the loan funds to the customer, so as not to exceed that figure. If the bank is found not to have checked or not to have drawn down its reserve balances then this constitutes a rejection of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">(c)</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1420" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Bank credit accounting according to the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>.</p><div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1425" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">According to this theory, banks are, as far as payments and accounts are concerned, not different from non-bank financial institutions. The reserve requirement is not an issue — a claim supported by the empirical observation that <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/reserve-requirement" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about reserve requirements from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">reserve requirements</a> have been abolished in a number of major economies, such as the UK and Sweden many years ago. However, UK financial intermediaries are required by FSA/FCA-administered Client Money rules to hold deposits in custody for customers (a form of warehousing, the deposits legally being bailments). Client funds of financial intermediaries, such as securities firms, stock brokers and the like are therefore still owned by the depositors and thus kept separately from the financial institutions' own funds, so that customer deposits are not shown on the balance sheet as liabilities. If banks are merely financial intermediaries, indistinguishable from other intermediaries, then all bank funds are central bank money that can be held in reserve at the central bank or deposited with other banks. The balance sheet implications are shown below in </span><a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0015" name="bt0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 3</span></a>.</p><div class="tables frame-topbot colsep-0 rowsep-0" id="t0015" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-top: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="captions text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 16px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span id="ca0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span class="label" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Table 3</span>. Account changes due to bank loan (<em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fin. intermediation theory</em>).</p></span></span><div class="groups" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 16px 0px; overflow-x: auto; padding: 0px;"><img alt="" height="69" src="https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1057521914001070-t3.jpg" style="border-style: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; width: auto;" /></div></div></div></dd></dl><p></p><p id="p0865" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">According to this theory, the bank balance sheet does not lengthen as a result of the bank loan: the funds for the loan are drawn from the bank's reserve account at the central bank.</p></section><section id="s0065" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0085" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">3.2. A live empirical test</h3><p id="p0875" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The design of the empirical test takes the form of a researcher entering into a live loan contract with the bank, and the bank extending a loan, while its relevant internal accounting is disclosed. Several banks in the UK and Germany were approached and asked to cooperate in an academic study of bank loan operations.</p><p id="p0880" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The large banks declined to cooperate. The reason given was usually twofold: the required disclosure of internal accounting data and procedures would breach their confidentiality or IT security rules; secondly, the transactions volumes of the banks were so large that the planned test would be very difficult to conduct when borrowing sensibly sized amounts of money that would not clash with the banks' internal risk management rules. In that case, any single transaction would not be easy to isolate within the bank's IT systems. Despite various discussions with a number of banks, in the end the banks declined on the basis of the above reasons and additionally that the costs of operating their systems and controlling for any potential other transactions would be prohibitive.</p><p id="p0885" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">It was therefore decided to approach smaller banks, of which there are many in Germany (there are approximately 1700 local, mostly small banks in Germany). Each owns a full banking license and engages in universal banking, offering all major banking services, including stock trading and currencies, to the general public. A local bank with a balance sheet of approximately €3 billion was approached, as well as a bank with a balance sheet of about €700 million. Both declined on the same grounds as the larger banks, but one suggested that a much smaller bank might be able to oblige, pointing out the advantage that there would be fewer transactions booked during the day, allowing a clearer identification of the empirical test transaction. At the same time the empirical information value would not diminish with bank size, since all banks in the EU conform to identical European bank regulations.</p><p id="p0890" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Thus an introduction to Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg e.G., located in a small town in the district of Lower Bavaria was made. The bank is a cooperative bank within the Raiffeisen and cooperative banking association of banks, with eight full-time staff. The two joint directors, Mr. Michael Betzenbichler and Mr. Marco Rebl both agreed to the empirical examination and also to share all available internal accounting records and documentation on their procedures. A written agreement was signed that confirmed that the planned transactions would be part of a scientific empirical test, and the researcher would not abscond with the funds when they would be transferred to his personal account, and undertakes to immediately repay the loan upon completion of the test (Supplementary material 1 in online <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s3000" name="bs3000" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Appendix 3</span></a>). One limitation on the accounting records which is common to most banks is that they are outsourcing the IT to a specialised bank IT company, which maintains its own rules concerning data protection and confidentiality.</p><p id="p9895" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The IT firm serves the majority of the 1,100 cooperative banks in Germany, using the same software and internal systems and accounting rules, ensuring that the test is representative of more than 15% of bank deposits in Germany.</p><p id="p0895" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">It was agreed that the researcher would personally borrow €200,000 from the bank. The transaction was undertaken on 7 August 2013 in the offices of the bank in Wildenberg in Bavaria. Apart from the two (sole) directors, also the head (and sole staff) of the credit department, Mr. Ludwig Keil was present. The directors were bystanders not engaging in any action. Mr. Keil was the only bank representative involved in processing the loan from the start of the customer documentation, to the signing of the loan contract and finally paying out the loan into the borrower's account. The entire transaction, including the manual entries made by Mr. Keil, was filmed. The screens of the bank's internal IT terminal were also photographed. Moreover, a team from the BBC was present and filmed the central part of the empirical bank credit experiment (Reporter Alistair Fee and a cameraman).</p><p id="p0900" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The bank disclosed their standard internal credit procedure. The sequence of the key steps is shown in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s0100" name="bs0100" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Appendix 1</span></a>. As can be seen, the last two steps are the signing of the ‘credit documents’ by the borrower (the researcher) and, finally, the payment of the loan at the value date.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0155" name="bfn0155" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">31</span></span></a></p><p id="p0905" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The loan conditions were agreed: the researcher would borrow EUR 200,000 from the bank at the prime rate (the <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/interest-rate" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about interest rate from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">interest rate</a> for the best customer). In the event the bank waived the actual interest proceeds, in support of the scientific research project.</p><div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p0910" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">When the bank loan contract was signed by both the bank and the borrower on 7 August 2013, the loan amount was immediately credited to the borrower's account with the bank, as agreed in the loan contract. Supplementary material 2 in online <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s3000" name="bs3000" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Appendix 2</span></a> shows the original borrower's accounts and balances with Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg. The key information from the account summary table is repeated here, in English, in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0020" name="bt0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 4</span></a>.</p><div class="tables frame-topbot colsep-0 rowsep-0" id="t0020" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-top: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="captions text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 16px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span id="ca0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span class="label" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Table 4</span>. The empirical researcher's new bank account.</p><p id="sp0535" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Bank: Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg e.G.</p><p id="sp0540" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Customer: Richard Werner.</p><p id="sp0545" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Date: 7 August 2013.</p></span></span><div class="groups" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 16px 0px; overflow-x: auto; padding: 0px;"><table style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0px; border-top: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; width: 656px;"><thead style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom;"><tr class="valign-top rowsep-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Account no.</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Type of product</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Currency</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">A/C balance</th></tr></thead><tbody style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" colspan="4" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Current account</em></td></tr><tr class="valign-top rowsep-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">44636</td><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">Current account w/o fees</td><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">EUR</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">200,000.00</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">Total in EUR:</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">200,000.00</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" colspan="4" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" colspan="4" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" colspan="4" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Loan</em></td></tr><tr class="valign-top rowsep-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">20044636</td><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">Other private financing</td><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">EUR</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">− 200,000.00</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">Total in EUR:</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">− 200,000.00</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div><div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p0915" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The bank also issued the following accounts overview, which is a standard T-account of the transaction from the borrower's perspective (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0025" name="bt0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 5</span></a>).</p><div class="tables frame-topbot colsep-0 rowsep-0" id="t0025" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-top: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="captions text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 16px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span id="ca0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span class="label" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Table 5</span>. The empirical researcher's new bank account balances.</p></span></span><div class="groups" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 16px 0px; overflow-x: auto; padding: 0px;"><table style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0px; border-top: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; width: 656px;"><thead style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom;"><tr class="valign-top rowsep-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><th class="align-left rowsep-1" colspan="5" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Accounts' overview</th></tr><tr class="valign-top rowsep-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">EUR</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Credit</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Liabilities</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Balance</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">No. contracts</th></tr></thead><tbody style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">Current account</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">200,000.00</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">200,000.00</td><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">1</td></tr><tr class="valign-top rowsep-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">Loan</td><td style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">200,000.00</td><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">− 200,000.00</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">1</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">Bank sum total</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">200,000.00</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">200,000.00</td><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">0.00</td><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">2</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div><p id="p0920" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The borrower confirmed that his new current account with the bank now showed a balance of EUR 200,000 that was available for spending (An extension of the experiment, to be reported on separately, used the balance the following day for a particular transaction outside the banking institution, transferring the funds to another account of the researcher, held with another bank; this transfer was duly completed, demonstrating that the funds could be used for actual transactions).</p><p id="p0925" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">We are now moving to the empirical test of the three banking theories. The critical question is: where did Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg e.G. obtain the funds from that the borrower (researcher) was credited with (and duly used and transferred out of the bank the following day)? When the researcher inquired about the bank's reserve holdings, in line with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory of banking</em>, director Marco Rebl explained that the bank maintained its reserves with the central organisation of cooperative banks, which in turn maintained an account with the central bank. These reserves amounted to a fixed amount of €350,000 that did not change during the observation period. Concerning the bank credit procedure, the researcher attempted to verify the source of the funds that were about to be lent.</p><p id="p0930" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Firstly, the researcher confirmed that the only three bank officers involved in this test and bank transaction were present throughout, whereby two (the directors) only watched and neither accessed any computer terminal nor transmitted any instructions whatsoever. The accounts manager (head of the credit department, Mr. Keil) was the only operator involved in implementing, booking and paying out the loan. His actions were filmed. It was noted and confirmed that none of the bank staff present engaged in any additional activity, such as ascertaining the available deposits or funds within the bank, or giving instructions to transfer funds from various sources to the borrower's account (for instance by contacting the bank internal treasury desk and contacting bank external interbank funding sources). Neither were instructions given to increase, draw down or borrow reserves from the central bank, the central cooperative bank or indeed any other bank or entity. In other words, it was apparent that upon the signing of the loan contract by both parties, the funds were credited to the borrower's account immediately, without any other activity of checking or giving instructions to transfer funds. There were no delays or deliberations or other bookings. The moment the loan was implemented, the borrower saw his current account balance increase by the loan amount. The overall credit transaction, from start to finish, until funds were available in the borrower's account, took about 35 min (and was clearly slowed down by the filming and frequent questions by the researcher).</p><p id="p0935" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Secondly, the researcher asked the three bank staff present whether they had, either before or after signing the loan contract and before crediting the borrower's account with the full loan amount inquired of any other parties internally or externally, checked the bank's available deposit balances, or made any bookings or transfers of any kind, in connection to this loan contract. They all confirmed that they did not engage in any such activity. They confirmed that upon signing the loan contract the borrower's account was credited immediately, without any such steps.</p><p id="p0940" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Thirdly, the researcher obtained the internal daily account statements from the bank. These are produced only once a day, after close of business. Since the bank is small, it was hoped that it would be possible to identify the impact of the €200,000 loan transaction, and distinguish the accounting pattern corresponding to one of the three banking hypotheses.</p></section></section><section id="s0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">4. Results</h2><div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p0945" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Supplementary material 3 in online <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s3000" name="bs3000" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Appendix 3</span></a> shows the scan of the bank's balance sheet at the end of 6 August 2013, the day before the transaction of the empirical test was undertaken. Supplementary material 4 in online <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s3000" name="bs3000" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Appendix 3</span></a> shows the daily balance of the following day. In <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0030" name="bt0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 6</span></a> the key asset positions are summarised and account names translated, for the end of the day prior to the loan experiment, and for the end of the day on which the researcher had borrowed the money. <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0035" name="bt0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 7</span></a> shows the key liability positions for the same periods:</p><div class="tables frame-topbot colsep-0 rowsep-0" id="t0030" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-top: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="captions text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 16px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span id="ca0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span class="label" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Table 6</span>. Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg e.G.: daily accounts' assets.</p><p id="sp0550" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">6 August 2013, 22.46 h. vs. 7 August 2013, 22.56 h.</p><p id="sp0555" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">EUR.</p></span></span><div class="groups" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 16px 0px; overflow-x: auto; padding: 0px;"><table style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0px; border-top: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; width: 656px;"><thead style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom;"><tr class="valign-top rowsep-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Assets</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Balance 6 Aug. 2013</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Balance 7 Aug. 2013</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Difference</th></tr></thead><tbody style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">1. Cash</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">181,703.03</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">340,032.89</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">158,329.86</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">2. Bills of exchange</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">3. Claims on financial. inst.</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5,298,713.76</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5,079,709.21</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">− 219,004.55</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">4. Claims on customers</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">23,712,558.13</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">23,947,729.92</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">235,171.79</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"> –Maturing daily</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">932,695.44</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">967,767.32</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">35,071.88</em></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"> –Maturity under 4 years</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">1,689,619.97</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">1,889,619.97</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">200,000.00</em></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"> –Maturity 4 years or longer</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">21,090,242.72</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">21,090,342.72</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">100.00</em></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5. Bonds, bills, debt instr.</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">19,178,065.00</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">19,178,065.00</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">6. Stocks and shares</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">7. Stake holdings</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">397,768.68</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">397,768.68</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">8. Stakes in related firms</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">9. Trust assets</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5262.69</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5262.69</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">10. Compensation claims on the public sector</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">11. Immaterial assets</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">102.00</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">102.00</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">12. Fixed assets</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">221,549.46</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">221,549.46</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">13. Called but not deployed capital</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">14. Other assets</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">707,569.26</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">711,288.64</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">3719.38</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">15. Balancing item</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">2844.32</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">2844.32</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">16. Sum of assets</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">49,706,136.33</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">49,884,352.81</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">178,216.48</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div class="tables frame-topbot colsep-0 rowsep-0" id="t0035" style="border-bottom: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-top: 2px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 16px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="captions text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 16px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><span id="ca0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0045" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span class="label" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Table 7</span>. Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg e.G.: daily accounts' liabilities.</p><p id="sp0560" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">6 August 2013, 22.46 h. vs. 7 August 2013, 22.56 h.</p><p id="sp0565" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">EUR.</p></span></span><div class="groups" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 16px 0px; overflow-x: auto; padding: 0px;"><table style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0px; border-top: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); margin: 0px; padding: 0px; width: 656px;"><thead style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: bottom;"><tr class="valign-top rowsep-1" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Liabilities</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Balance 6 Aug. 2013</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Balance 7 Aug. 2013</th><th class="align-left" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(235, 235, 235); border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px; position: relative; text-align: left;">Difference</th></tr></thead><tbody style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">1. Claims by financial inst.</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5,621,456.60</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5,621,879.66</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">423.06</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">2. Claims by customers</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">39,589,177.09</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">39,759,156.42</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">169,979.33</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"> 2A. Savings accounts</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">10,234,806.01</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">10,237,118.24</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">2312.23</em></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"> 2B. Other liabilities</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">29,354,371.08</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">29,522,038.18</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">167,667.10</em></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"> –BA daily</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">13,773,925.93</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">13,963,899.89</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">189,973.96</em></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"> –BB maturity less 4 years</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">13,296,042.92</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">13,273,736.06</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">− 22,306.86</em></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"> –BC maturity 4 years or longer</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">2,284,402.23</em></td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">2,284,402.23</em></td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">4. Trust liabilities</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5262.70</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5262.70</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">5. Other liabilities</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">12,378.81</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">12,599.44</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">220.63</td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">6. Balancing item</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">16,996.04</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">16,996.04</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">7. Reserves</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">1,138,497.64</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">1,138,497.64</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">11. Fund for bank risk</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">250,000.00</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">250,000.00</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">12. Own capital</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">3,057,248.57</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">3,057,248.57</td><td style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;"></td></tr><tr class="valign-top" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><td class="align-left" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">13. Sum liabilities</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">49,706,136.33</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">49,884,352.81</td><td class="align-char" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-right: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 5px;">178,216.48</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div><p id="p0950" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Starting by analysing the liability side information (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0035" name="bt0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 7</span></a>), we find that customer deposits are considered part of the financial institution's balance sheet. This contradicts the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>, which assumes that banks are not special and are virtually indistinguishable from non-bank financial institutions that have to keep customer deposits off balance sheet. In actual fact, a bank considers a customers' deposits starkly differently from non-bank financial institutions, who record customer deposits off their balance sheet. Instead we find that the bank treats customer deposits as a loan to the bank, recorded under rubric ‘claims by customers’, who in turn receive as record of their loans to the bank (called ‘deposits’) what is known as their ‘account statement’. This can only be reconciled with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation</em> or <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theories</em> of banking.</p><p id="p0955" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">We observe that an amount not far below the loan balance (about €190,000) has been deposited with the bank. This is itself not far from the increase in total liabilities (and assets). Since the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve hypothesis</em> requires such an increase in deposits as a precondition for being able to grant the bank loan, i.e. it must precede the bank loan, it is difficult to reconcile this observation with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>. Moreover, the researcher confirmed that in his own bank account the loan balance of €200,000 was shown on the same day. This means that the increase in liabilities was driven by the increase by €200,000 in daily liabilities (item 2B BA in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#t0035" name="bt0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Table 7</span></a>). Thus the total increase in liabilities could not have been due to a coincidental increase in customer deposits on the day of the loan. The liability side account information seems only fully in line with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>.</p><p id="p0960" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Turning to an analysis of the asset side, we note that the category where we find our loan is item 4, claims on customers — fortunately the only one that day with a maturity below 4 years and hence clearly identifiable on the bank balance sheet. Apparently, customers also took out short-term loans (most likely overdrafts) amounting to €35,071.88, producing a total new loan balance of €235,071.88. In order to keep the analysis as simple as possible, let us proceed from here assuming that our test loan amounted to this total loan figure (€235,071.88). So the balance sheet item of interest on the asset side is ΔA4, the increase in loans (claims on customers) amounting to €235,071.88.</p><p id="p1430" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">We now would like to analyse the balance sheet in order to see whether this new loan of €235,071.88 was withdrawn from other accounts at the bank, or how else it was funded. We first proceed with considering activity on the asset side. 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left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mtable is="true"><mtr is="true"><mtd is="true"><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔAssets</mi><mo is="true">=</mo><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔA</mi><mn is="true">1</mn><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">cash</mi></mfenced><mo is="true">+</mo><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔA</mi><mn is="true">3</mn><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mrow is="true"><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">claims</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">on</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">other</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">FI</mi></mrow></mfenced></mtd></mtr><mtr is="true"><mtd is="true"><mo is="true">+</mo><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔA</mi><mn is="true">4</mn><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mrow is="true"><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">claims</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">on</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">customers</mi></mrow></mfenced><mo is="true">+</mo><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔA</mi><mn is="true">14</mn><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mrow is="true"><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">other</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">assets</mi></mrow></mfenced><mtext is="true">.</mtext></mtd></mtr></mtable></math></span></span></span></p><p id="p1435" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Numerically, these are, rounded in thousand euro:<span class="display" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mn is="true">178</mn><mo is="true">=</mo><mn is="true">158</mn><mo is="true">&#x2212;</mo><mn is="true">219</mn><mo is="true">+</mo><mn is="true">235</mn><mo is="true">+</mo><mn is="true">4</mn><mtext is="true">.</mtext></math>" id="MathJax-Element-2-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="2.086ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.351ex;" viewbox="0 -747.2 11787.9 898.2" width="27.378ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-31"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-37" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-38" y="0"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(1779,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-3D"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(2835,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-31"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-35" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-38" y="0"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(4559,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2212"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(5560,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-32"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-31" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-39" y="0"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(7283,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2B"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(8284,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-32"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-33" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-35" y="0"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(10008,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2B"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(11008,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-34"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(11509,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2E"></use></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mn is="true">178</mn><mo is="true">=</mo><mn is="true">158</mn><mo is="true">−</mo><mn is="true">219</mn><mo is="true">+</mo><mn is="true">235</mn><mo is="true">+</mo><mn is="true">4</mn><mtext is="true">.</mtext></math></span></span></span></p><p id="p1440" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> says that the loan balance must be paid from reserves. These can be either cash balances or reserves with other banks (including the central bank). The deposits (claims) with other financial institutions (which effectively includes the bank's central bank reserve balances) declined significantly, by €219,000. At the same time cash reserves increased significantly. What may have happened is that the bank withdrew legal tender from its account with the cooperative central bank, explaining both the rise in cash and decline in balances with other financial institutions. Since the theories do not distinguish between these categories, we can aggregate A1 and A3, the cash balances and reserves. Also, to simplify, we aggregate A14 (other assets) with A4 (claims on customers), to obtain:<span class="display" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mtable columnalign="left" is="true"><mtr columnalign="left" is="true"><mtd columnalign="left" is="true"><mn is="true">178</mn></mtd></mtr><mtr columnalign="left" is="true"><mtd columnalign="left" is="true"><mfenced open="(" close=")" is="true"><mrow is="true"><mi is="true">&#x394;</mi><mi mathvariant="normal" is="true">Assets</mi></mrow></mfenced></mtd></mtr></mtable><mtable columnalign="center" is="true"><mtr columnalign="center" is="true"><mtd columnalign="center" is="true"><mo is="true">=</mo><mo is="true">&#x2212;</mo><mn is="true">61</mn></mtd></mtr><mtr columnalign="center" is="true"><mtd columnalign="center" is="true"><mfenced open="(" close=")" is="true"><mrow is="true"><mi is="true">&#x394;</mi><mi mathvariant="normal" is="true">reserves</mi></mrow></mfenced></mtd></mtr></mtable><mtable columnalign="center" is="true"><mtr columnalign="center" is="true"><mtd columnalign="center" is="true"><mo is="true">+</mo><mn is="true">239</mn></mtd></mtr><mtr columnalign="center" is="true"><mtd columnalign="center" is="true"><mfenced open="(" close=")" is="true"><mrow is="true"><mi is="true">&#x394;</mi><mi mathvariant="normal" is="true">claims</mi><mspace width="0.25em" is="true" /><mi mathvariant="normal" is="true">on</mi><mspace width="0.25em" is="true" /><mi mathvariant="normal" is="true">customers</mi><mo is="true">,</mo><mspace width="0.25em" is="true" /><mi mathvariant="normal" is="true">others</mi></mrow></mfenced></mtd></mtr></mtable><mtext is="true">.</mtext></math>" id="MathJax-Element-3-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="6.125ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -2.428ex;" viewbox="0 -1591.7 25075.7 2637" width="58.241ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true" transform="translate(167,0)"><g transform="translate(-16,0)"><g is="true" transform="translate(0,690)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-31"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-37" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-38" y="0"></use></g></g><g is="true" transform="translate(0,-740)"><g is="true"><use x="0" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-28" y="0"></use><g is="true" transform="translate(389,0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMAINI-394"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(985,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-41"></use><use x="750" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use><use x="1145" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use><use x="1539" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-65" y="0"></use><use x="1984" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-74" y="0"></use><use x="2373" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use></g></g><use x="4142" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-29" y="0"></use></g></g></g></g><g is="true" transform="translate(5018,0)"><g transform="translate(-16,0)"><g is="true" transform="translate(1182,690)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-3D"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(1056,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2212"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(1834,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-36"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-31" y="0"></use></g></g><g is="true" transform="translate(0,-740)"><g is="true"><use x="0" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-28" y="0"></use><g is="true" transform="translate(389,0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMAINI-394"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(985,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-72"></use><use x="392" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-65" y="0"></use><use x="837" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use><use x="1231" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-65" y="0"></use><use x="1676" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-72" y="0"></use><use x="2068" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-76" y="0"></use><use x="2597" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-65" y="0"></use><use x="3041" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use></g></g><use x="4810" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-29" y="0"></use></g></g></g></g><g is="true" transform="translate(10537,0)"><g transform="translate(-16,0)"><g is="true" transform="translate(5914,690)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2B"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(778,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-32"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-33" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-39" y="0"></use></g></g><g is="true" transform="translate(0,-740)"><g is="true"><use x="0" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-28" y="0"></use><g is="true" transform="translate(389,0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMAINI-394"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(985,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-63"></use><use x="444" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-6C" y="0"></use><use x="723" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-61" y="0"></use><use x="1223" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-69" y="0"></use><use x="1502" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-6D" y="0"></use><use x="2335" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use></g><g is="true"></g><g is="true" transform="translate(4131,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-6F"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-6E" y="0"></use></g><g is="true"></g><g is="true" transform="translate(5605,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-63"></use><use x="444" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-75" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use><use x="1395" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-74" y="0"></use><use x="1785" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-6F" y="0"></use><use x="2285" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-6D" y="0"></use><use x="3119" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-65" y="0"></use><use x="3563" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-72" y="0"></use><use x="3956" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(9956,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2C"></use></g><g is="true"></g><g is="true" transform="translate(10651,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-6F"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-74" y="0"></use><use x="890" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-68" y="0"></use><use x="1446" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-65" y="0"></use><use x="1891" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-72" y="0"></use><use x="2283" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use></g></g><use x="13718" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-29" y="0"></use></g></g></g></g><g is="true" transform="translate(24797,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2E"></use></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mtable columnalign="left" is="true"><mtr columnalign="left" is="true"><mtd columnalign="left" is="true"><mn is="true">178</mn></mtd></mtr><mtr columnalign="left" is="true"><mtd columnalign="left" is="true"><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mrow is="true"><mi is="true">Δ</mi><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">Assets</mi></mrow></mfenced></mtd></mtr></mtable><mtable columnalign="center" is="true"><mtr columnalign="center" is="true"><mtd columnalign="center" is="true"><mo is="true">=</mo><mo is="true">−</mo><mn is="true">61</mn></mtd></mtr><mtr columnalign="center" is="true"><mtd columnalign="center" is="true"><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mrow is="true"><mi is="true">Δ</mi><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">reserves</mi></mrow></mfenced></mtd></mtr></mtable><mtable columnalign="center" is="true"><mtr columnalign="center" is="true"><mtd columnalign="center" is="true"><mo is="true">+</mo><mn is="true">239</mn></mtd></mtr><mtr columnalign="center" is="true"><mtd columnalign="center" is="true"><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mrow is="true"><mi is="true">Δ</mi><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">claims</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.25em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">on</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.25em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">customers</mi><mo is="true">,</mo><mspace is="true" width="0.25em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">others</mi></mrow></mfenced></mtd></mtr></mtable><mtext is="true">.</mtext></math></span></span></span></p><p id="p1005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">We observe that reserves fell, while claims on customers rose significantly. Moreover, total assets also rose, by an amount not dissimilar to our loan balance. Can this information be reconciled with the three theories of banking?</p><p id="p1010" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Considering the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation hypothesis</em>, we would expect a decline in reserves (accounts with other financial institutions and cash) of the same amount as customer loans increased. Reserves however declined by far less. At the same time, the balance sheet expanded, driven by a significant increase in claims on customers. If the bank borrowed money from other banks in order to fund the loan (thus reducing its balance of net claims on other banks), in line with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation</em> theory of banking, vault cash should not increase and neither should the balance sheet. We observe both a significant rise in cash holdings and an expansion in the total balance sheet (total assets and total liabilities), which rose by €178,000. This cannot be reconciled with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>, which we therefore must consider as rejected.</p><p id="p1015" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Considering the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>, we confirmed by asking the credit department's Mr. Keil, as well as the directors, that none of them checked their reserve balance or balance of deposits with other banks before signing the loan contract and making the funds available to the borrower (see the translated letter in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s3000" name="bs3000" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Appendix 2</span></a>, and the original letter in the online Appendix 3. Furthermore, there seems no evidence that reserves (cash and claims on other financial institutions) declined in an amount commensurate with the loan taken out. Finally, the observed increase in the balance sheet can also not be reconciled with the standard description of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>. We must therefore consider it as rejected, too.</p><p id="p1020" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">This leaves us with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>. Can we reconcile the observed accounting asset side information with it? And what do we learn from the liability side information?</p><p id="p1445" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The transactions are linked to each other via the accounting identities of the balance sheet (Eqs. <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fo0005" name="bfo0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">(1)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fo0010" name="bfo0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">(2)</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fo0015" name="bfo0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">(3)</span></a>). We can therefore ask the question what would have happened to total assets, if we assumed for the moment that no other transaction had taken place, apart from the loan (235). We can set the change in each asset item (except for ΔA4, our loan) to zero, if we subtract the same amount from the change in total assets. The new total asset balance in this hypothetical scenario would be:<span class="display" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="MathJax_Preview" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #888888; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></span><span class="MathJax_SVG" data-mathml="<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mn is="true">178</mn><mo is="true">&#x2212;</mo><mn is="true">158</mn><mo is="true">+</mo><mn is="true">219</mn><mo is="true">&#x2212;</mo><mn is="true">4</mn><mo is="true">=</mo><mn is="true">235</mn></math>" id="MathJax-Element-4-Frame" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; direction: ltr; display: inline-block; float: none; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; max-height: none; max-width: none; min-height: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: normal; padding: 0px; position: relative; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: normal;" tabindex="0"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" height="2.086ex" role="img" style="vertical-align: -0.351ex;" viewbox="0 -747.2 11509.4 898.2" width="26.732ex" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><g fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" stroke="currentColor" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g is="true"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-31"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-37" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-38" y="0"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(1723,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2212"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(2724,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-31"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-35" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-38" y="0"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(4448,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2B"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(5448,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-32"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-31" y="0"></use><use x="1001" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-39" y="0"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(7172,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2212"></use></g><g 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xlink:href="#MJMAIN-61"></use><use x="500" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use><use x="895" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use><use x="1289" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-65" y="0"></use><use x="1734" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-74" y="0"></use><use x="2123" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-73" y="0"></use></g></g><use x="5857" xlink:href="#MJMAIN-29" y="0"></use></g><g is="true" transform="translate(22338,0)"><use xlink:href="#MJMAIN-2E"></use></g></g></g></svg><span class="MJX_Assistive_MathML" role="presentation" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 1px 0px 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; transition: none 0s ease 0s; user-select: none; width: 1px;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔA</mi><mn is="true">4</mn><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mrow is="true"><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">claims</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">on</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">customers</mi></mrow></mfenced><mo is="true">=</mo><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔAssets</mi><mo is="true">−</mo><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔA</mi><mn is="true">1</mn><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">cash</mi></mfenced><mo is="true">−</mo><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔA</mi><mn is="true">3</mn><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mrow is="true"><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">claims</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">on</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">other</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">FI</mi></mrow></mfenced><mo is="true">−</mo><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">ΔA</mi><mn is="true">14</mn><mfenced close=")" is="true" open="("><mrow is="true"><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">other</mi><mspace is="true" width="0.5em"></mspace><mi is="true" mathvariant="normal">assets</mi></mrow></mfenced><mtext is="true">.</mtext></math></span></span></span></p><p id="p1050" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In other words, if the other transactions had not happened, the bank's balance sheet would have expanded by the same amount as the loans taken out. This finding is consistent only with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> of bank lending.</p><p id="p1055" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The evidence is not as easily interpreted as may have been desired, since in practice it is not possible to stop all other bank transactions that may be initiated by bank customers (who are nowadays able to implement transactions via internet banking even on holidays). But the available accounting data cannot be reconciled with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve</em> and the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation</em> hypotheses of banking.</p></section><section id="s0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0045" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">5. Conclusion</h2><p id="p1060" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">This paper was intended to serve two functions. First, the <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/history-of-economic-thought" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about history of economic thought from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">history of economic thought</a> was examined concerning the question of how banks function. It was found that a long-standing controversy exists that has not been settled empirically. Secondly, empirical tests were conducted to settle the existing and continuing controversies and find out which of the three theories of banking is consistent with the empirical observations.</p><section id="s0070" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0090" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">5.1. Three theories but no empirical test</h3><p id="p1070" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Concerning the first issue, in this paper we identified three distinct hypotheses concerning the role of banks, namely the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>, the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> and the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>. It was found that the first theory was dominant until about the mid- to late 1920s, featuring leading proponents such as Macleod and Schumpeter. Then the second theory became dominant, under the influence of such economists as Keynes, Crick, Phillips and Samuelson, until about the early 1960s. From the early 1960s, first under the influence of Keynes and Tobin and the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Money, Credit and Banking</em>, the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> became dominant.</p><p id="p1075" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Yet, despite these identifiable eras of predominance, doubts have remained concerning each theory. Most recently, the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> has experienced a revival, having been championed again in the aftermath of the Japanese banking crisis in the early 1990s (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0570" name="bbb0570" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 1992</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0575" name="bbb0575" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 1997</span></a>) and in the run-up to and aftermath of the European and US financial crises since 2007 (see <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0050" name="bbb0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bank of England, 2014a</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0055" name="bbb0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bank of England, 2014b</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0095" name="bbb0095" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Benes and Kumhof, 2012</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9080" name="bbb9080" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Ryan-Collins et al., 2011</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0435" name="bbb0435" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Ryan-Collins et al., 2012</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0590" name="bbb0590" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2003b</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0580" name="bbb0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2005</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0605" name="bbb0605" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2012</span></a>). However, such works have not yet become influential in the majority of models and theories of the macro-economy or banking. Thus it had to be concluded that the controversy continues, without any scientific attempt having been made at settling it through empirical evidence.</p></section><section id="s0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">5.2. The empirical evidence: credit creation theory supported</h3><p id="p1080" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The second contribution of this paper has been to report on the first empirical study testing the three main hypotheses. They have been successfully tested in a real world setting of borrowing from a bank and examining the actual internal bank accounting in an uncontrolled real world environment.</p><p id="p1085" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">It was examined whether in the process of making money available to the borrower the bank transfers these funds from other accounts (within or outside the bank). In the process of making loaned money available in the borrower's bank account, it was found that the bank did not transfer the money away from other internal or external accounts, resulting in a rejection of both the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> and the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>. Instead, it was found that the bank newly ‘invented’ the funds by crediting the borrower's account with a deposit, although no such deposit had taken place. This is in line with the claims of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>.</p><p id="p1090" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Thus it can now be said with confidence for the first time – possibly in the 5000 years' history of banking - that it has been empirically demonstrated that each individual bank creates credit and money out of nothing, when it extends what is called a ‘bank loan’. The bank does not loan any existing money, but instead creates new money. The money supply is created as ‘fairy dust’ produced by the banks out of thin air.<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0160" name="bfn0160" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">32</span></span></a> The implications are far-reaching.</p></section><section id="s0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">5.3. What is special about banks</h3><p id="p1095" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Henceforth, economists need not rely on assertions concerning banks. We now know, based on empirical evidence, why banks are different, indeed unique — solving the longstanding puzzle posed by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0190" name="bbb0190" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Fama (1985)</span></a> and others — and different from both non-bank financial institutions and corporations: it is because they can individually create money out of nothing.</p></section><section id="s0075" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h3 class="u-h4 u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0095" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">5.4. Implications</h3><section id="s0080" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h4 class="u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0100" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">5.4.1. Implications for economic theory</h4><p id="p1105" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The empirical evidence shows that of the three theories of banking, it is the one that today has the least influence and that is being belittled in the literature that is supported by the empirical evidence. Furthermore, it is the theory which was widely held at the end of the 19th century and in the first three decades of the twentieth. It is sobering to realise that since the 1930s, economists have moved further and further away from the truth, instead of coming closer to it. This happened first via the half-truth of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> and then reached the completely false and misleading <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> that today is so dominant. Thus this paper has found evidence that there has been no progress in scientific knowledge in economics, finance and banking in the 20th century concerning one of the most important and fundamental facts for these disciplines. Instead, there has been a regressive development. The known facts were unlearned and have become unknown. This phenomenon deserves further research. For now it can be mentioned that this process of unlearning the facts of banking could not possibly have taken place without the leading economists of the day having played a significant role in it. The most influential and famous of all 20th century economists, as we saw, was a sequential adherent of all three theories, which is a surprising phenomenon. Moreover, Keynes used his considerable clout to slow scientific analysis of the question whether banks could create money, as he instead engaged in ad hominem attacks on followers of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>. Despite his enthusiastic early support for the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0275" name="bbb0275" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes, 1924</span></a>), only six years later he was condescending, if not dismissive, of this theory, referring to credit creation only in inverted commas. He was perhaps even more dismissive of supporters of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>, who he referred to as being part of the “Army of Heretics and Cranks, whose numbers and enthusiasm are extraordinary”, and who seem to believe in “magic” and some kind of “Utopia” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes, 1930, vol. 2, p. 215</span></a>).<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#fn0165" name="bfn0165" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">33</span></span></a></p><p id="p1450" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Needless to mention, such rhetoric is not conducive to scientific argument. But this technique was followed by other economists engaged in advancing the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve</em> and later <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation</em> theories. US Federal Reserve staffer <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0005" name="bbb0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Alhadeff (1954)</span></a> argued similarly during the era when economists worked on getting the fractional reserve theory established:</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0420" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“One complication worth discussing concerns the alleged “creation” of money by bankers. It used to be claimed that bankers could create money by the simple device of opening deposit accounts for their business borrowers. It has since been amply demonstrated that under a fractional reserve system, only the totality of banks can expand deposits to the full reciprocal of the reserve ratio. [Original footnote: ‘Chester A. Phillips, <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Bank Credit</em> (New York: Macmillan, 1921), chapter 3, for the classical refutation of this claim.’] The individual bank can normally expand to an amount about equal to its primary deposits” (p. 7).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1120" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The creation of credit by banks had become, in the style of <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes (1930)</span></a>, an “alleged ‘creation’”, whereby rhetorically it was suggested that such thinking was simplistic and hence could not possibly be true. Tobin used the rhetorical device of abductio ad absurdum to denigrate the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> by incorrectly suggesting it postulated a ‘widow's cruse’, a miraculous vessel producing unlimited amounts of valuable physical goods, and thus its followers were believers in miracles or utopias.</p><p id="p1455" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">This same type of rhetorical denigration of and disengagement with the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> is also visible in the most recent era. For instance, the New Palgrave <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Money</em> (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0185" name="bbb0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Eatwell et al., 1989</span></a>), is an influential 340-page reference work that claims to present a ‘balanced perspective on each topic’ (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0185" name="bbb0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Eatwell et al., 1989, p. viii</span></a>). Yet the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> is dominant, with a minor representation of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>. The <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> is not presented at all, even as a possibility. But the book does include a chapter entitled “Monetary cranks”. In this brief chapter, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes' (1930)</span></a> derogatory treatment of supporters of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> is updated for use in the 1990s, with sharpened claws: Ridicule and insult is heaped on several fateful authors that have produced thoughtful analyses of the economy, the monetary system and the role of banks, such as Nobel laureate <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0490" name="bbb0490" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Sir Frederick Soddy (1934)</span></a> and <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0180" name="bbb0180" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">C.H. Douglas (1924)</span></a>. Even the seminal and influential work by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0300" name="bbb0300" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Georg Friedrich Knapp (1905)</span></a>, still favourably cited by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0285" name="bbb0285" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes (1936)</span></a>, is identified as being created by a ‘crank’. What these apparently wretched authors have in common, and what seems to be their main fault, punishable by being listed in this inauspicious chapter, is that they are adherents of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>. But, revealingly, their contributions are belittled without it anywhere being stated what their key tenets are and that their analyses centre on the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>, which itself remains unnamed and is never spelled out. This is not a small feat, and leaves one pondering the possibility that the <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0185" name="bbb0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Eatwell et al. (1989)</span></a> tome was purposely designed to ignore and distract from the rich literature supporting the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>. Nothing lost, according to the authors, who applaud the development that due to</p><blockquote style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp0425" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“the increased emphasis given to <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/monetary-theory" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about monetary theory from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">monetary theory</a> by academic economists in recent decades, the monetary cranks have largely disappeared from public debate …” (p. 214).</p></blockquote><p></p><p id="p1135" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">And so has the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em>. Since the tenets of this theory are never stated in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0185" name="bbb0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Eatwell et al. (1989)</span></a>, the chapter on ‘Cranks’ ends up being a litany of ad hominem denigration, defamation and character assassination, liberally distributing labels such as ‘cranks’, ‘phrase-mongers’, ‘agitators’, ‘populists’, and even ‘conspiracy theorists’ that believe in ‘miracles’ and engage in wishful thinking, ultimately deceiving their readers by trying to “impress their peers with their apparent understanding of economics, even though they had no formal training in the discipline” (p. 214). All that we learn about their actual theories is that, somehow, these ill-fated authors are “opposed to private banks and the ‘Money Power’ without their opposition leading to more sophisticated political analysis” (p. 215). Any reading of the highly sophisticated <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0490" name="bbb0490" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Soddy (1934)</span></a> quickly reveals such labels as unfounded defamation.</p><p id="p1140" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">To the contrary, the empirical evidence presented in this paper has revealed that the many supporters of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> and also the adherents of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> are flat-earthers that believe in what is empirically proven to be wrong and which should have been recognisable as being impossible upon deeper consideration of the accounting requirements. Whether the authors in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0185" name="bbb0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Eatwell et al. (1989)</span></a> did in fact know better is an open question that deserves attention in future research. Certainly the unscientific treatment of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> and its supporters by such authors as Keynes, who strongly endorsed the theory only a few years before authoring tirades against its supporters, or by the authors in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0185" name="bbb0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Eatwell et al. (1989)</span></a>, raises this possibility.</p></section><section id="s0085" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h4 class="u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0105" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">5.4.2. Implications for government policy</h4><p id="p1150" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">There are other, far-reaching ramifications of the finding that banks individually create credit and money when they do what is called ‘lending money’. It is readily seen that this fact is important not only for <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/monetary-policy" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about monetary policy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">monetary policy</a><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">, but also for <a class="topic-link" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/economics-econometrics-and-finance/fiscal-policy" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-color: rgb(46, 46, 46); text-decoration-thickness: 1px; text-underline-offset: 1px; word-break: break-word;" title="Learn more about fiscal policy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages">fiscal policy</a>, and needs to be reflected in economic theories. Policies concerning the avoidance of banking crises, or dealing with the aftermath of crises require a different shape once the reality of the </span></span><em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> is recognised. They call for a whole new paradigm in monetary economics, macroeconomics, finance and banking (for details, see for instance <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0575" name="bbb0575" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 1997</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0580" name="bbb0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2005</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0605" name="bbb0605" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2012</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0615" name="bbb0615" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2013a</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0615" name="bbb0615" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2013a</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0620" name="bbb0620" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2013b</span></a>) that is based on the reality of banks as creators of the money supply. It has potentially important implications for other disciplines, such as accounting, economic and business history, economic geography, politics, sociology and law.</p></section><section id="s0090" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h4 class="u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0110" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">5.4.3. Implications for bank regulation</h4><p id="p1160" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The implications are far-reaching for bank regulation and the design of official policies. As mentioned in the <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s0005" name="bs0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Introduction</span></a>, modern national and international banking regulation is predicated on the assumption that the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> is correct. Since in fact banks are able to create money out of nothing, imposing higher capital requirements on banks will not necessarily enable the prevention of boom–bust cycles and banking crises, since even with higher capital requirements, banks could still continue to expand the money supply, thereby fuelling asset prices, whereby some of this newly created money can be used to increase bank capital. Based on the recognition of this, some economists have argued for more direct intervention by the central bank in the credit market, for instance via quantitative credit guidance (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9155" name="bbb9155" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2002</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0590" name="bbb0590" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2003b</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0580" name="bbb0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2005</span></a>).</p></section><section id="s0095" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h4 class="u-margin-m-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0115" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 24px !important; margin: 24px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">5.4.4. Monetary reform</h4><p id="p1170" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0050" name="bbb0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bank of England, 2014a</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0055" name="bbb0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bank of England, 2014b</span></a> recent intervention has triggered a public debate about whether the privilege of banks to create money should in fact be revoked (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0675" name="bbb0675" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wolf, 2014</span></a>). The reality of banks as creators of the money supply does raise the question of the ideal type of monetary system. Much research is needed on this account. Among the many different monetary system designs tried over the past 5000 years, very few have met the requirement for a fair, effective, accountable, stable, sustainable and democratic creation and allocation of money. The view of the author, based on more than twenty-three years of research on this topic, is that it is the safest bet to ensure that the awesome power to create money is returned directly to those to whom it belongs: ordinary people, not technocrats. This can be ensured by the introduction of a network of small, not-for-profit local banks across the nation. Most countries do not currently possess such a system. However, it is at the heart of the successful German economic performance in the past 200 years. It is the very Raiffeisen, Volksbank or Sparkasse banks – the smaller the better – that were helpful in the implementation of this empirical study that should serve as the role model for future policies concerning our monetary system. In addition, one can complement such local public bank money with money issued by local authorities that is accepted to pay local taxes, namely a local public money that has not come about by creating debt, but that is created for services rendered to local authorities or the community. Both forms of local money creation together would create a decentralised and more accountable monetary system that should perform better (based on the empirical evidence from Germany) than the unholy alliance of central banks and big banks, which have done much to create unsustainable asset bubbles and banking crises (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0615" name="bbb0615" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2013a</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0620" name="bbb0620" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2013b</span></a>).</p></section></section></section></div><div class="Appendices" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><section id="s0100" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0120" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">Appendix 1. 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margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;"></p><dl class="list" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">1.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1465" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Negotiations concerning the details of the loan.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">2.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1470" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Receipt of KYC information and opening of a new customer file (new customer).</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">3.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1475" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Opening of a current account (new customer).</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">4.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1480" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Calculation of the loan and repayment schedule, model calculation, European required customer notification information, record of customer advisory.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">5.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1485" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Entry of loan application into the bank IT system.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">6.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1490" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Check of ability to service and repay the loan/conducting liquidity calculation in loan application.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">7.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1495" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Credit rating of customer, entry into customer file.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">8.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1500" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Search of customer data on central bank data base for singular economic dependencies and entry of results into bank IT.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">9.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1505" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Bank board recommendation on loan application with justification (2 directors).</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">10.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1510" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Print out of loan contract, general loan conditions, with handover receipted by customer.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">11.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1515" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Print out of the protocol of the loan process.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">12.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1520" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Approval of credit by bank directors by signing the protocol and the loan contract.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">13.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1525" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Creation of loan account in the IT system.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">14.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1530" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Establishment of credit limit and availability of credit.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">15.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1535" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Appointment with customer.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">16.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1540" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Customer signs credit documents.</p></dd><dt class="list-label" style="box-sizing: border-box; clear: left; float: left; margin: 0px 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">17.</dt><dd class="list-description" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 0px 24px; padding: 0px;"><p id="p1545" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Payment of loan at the value date, in exchange for evidence of use of the loan in line with the declared use in the loan application.</p></dd></dl><p></p></section><section id="s1100" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st5120" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">Appendix 2. Letter of confirmation of facts by Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg e.G. (Translation; original in online Appendix 3).</h2><p id="p2465" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">10 June 2014</p><p id="p3465" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Dear Prof. Dr. Werner,</p><p id="p3470" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Confirmation of Facts</p><p id="p2475" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In connection with the extension of credit to you in August 2014 I am pleased to confirm that neither I as director of Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg eG, nor our staff checked either before or during the granting of the loan to you, whether we keep sufficient funds with our central bank, DZ Bank AG, or the Bundesbank. We also did not engage in any such related transaction, nor did we undertake any transfers or account bookings in order to finance the credit balance in your account. Therefore we did not engage in any checks or transactions in order to provide liquidity.</p><p id="p2580" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Yours sincerely,</p><p id="p2480" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">M. Rebl,</p><p id="p2485" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Director, Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg e.G.</p></section><section id="s3000" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" id="st0500" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 8px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 8px; padding: 0px;">Appendix 2. 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box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Download : <span class="download-link-title" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Download Acrobat PDF file (335KB)</span></span></a></div><span class="captions text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span id="ca0500" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><p id="sp1000" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Supplementary material 1.</p></span></span><span class="display" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Supplementary material 2</span><span class="display" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Supplementary material 3</span><span class="display" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Supplementary material 4.</span><span class="display" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Supplementary material 5.</span><p></p></section></div></div><div class="Tail text-s" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></div><section class="bibliography u-font-gulliver text-s" id="bi0005" style="--sd-ui-line-height: calc(1em + 10px); box-sizing: border-box; color: #2e2e2e; font-family: ElsevierGulliver, Georgia, "Times New Roman", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Arial Unicode MS", serif; font-size: 0.8rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px 0px 32px; padding: 0px;"><h2 class="section-title u-h4 u-margin-l-top u-margin-xs-bottom" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 24px; font-weight: 400; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height) !important; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 32px !important; margin: 32px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">References</h2><section class="bibliography-sec" id="bs0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dl class="references" id="reference-links-bs0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0005" id="ref-id-bb0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Alhadeff, 1954</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0480" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">David A. Alhadeff</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0480" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Rise of Commercial Banking</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">University of California Press, Berkeley (1954)</div><div class="comment" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(reprinted in 1980 by Arno Press as: <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Monopoly and Competition in Banking</em>)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0480" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The%20Rise%20of%20Commercial%20Banking&publication_year=1954&author=David%20A.%20Alhadeff" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0010" id="ref-id-bb0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen et al., 2014</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0485" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Franklin Allen, Elena Carletti, Douglas Gale</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0485" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Money, financial stability and efficiency</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Economic Theory, Vol. 149(C), Elsevier (2014), pp. 100-127</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0485" class="anchor pdf link anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022053113000537/pdfft?md5=3da3ade7537dcfe2ce05c303cd643021&pid=1-s2.0-S0022053113000537-main.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen and Gale, 2000</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">F. Allen, D. Gale</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Financial contagion</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Political Economy, 108 (2000), pp. 1-33</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0005" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Financial%20contagion&publication_year=2000&author=F.%20Allen&author=D.%20Gale" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0020" id="ref-id-bb0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen and Gale, 2004a</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">F. Allen, D. Gale</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Financial intermediaries and markets</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Econometrica, 72 (2004), pp. 1023-1061</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button failed" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" disabled="" doc-id="2-s2.0-3142764049" doc-type="scopus" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;" tooltip-placement="left"></els-view-pdf-element></div><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0010" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-3142764049&partnerID=10&rel=R3.0.0" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">View in Scopus</span></a><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0010" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Financial%20intermediaries%20and%20markets&publication_year=2004&author=F.%20Allen&author=D.%20Gale" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0025" id="ref-id-bb0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Allen and Gale, 2004b</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">F. Allen, D. Gale</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Competition and financial stability</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 36 (2004), pp. 453-480</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button found-doi" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" doc-id="10.1353/mcb.2004.0038" doc-type="doi" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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Allen, Santomero</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">What do financial intermediaries do?</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Banking & Finance, 25 (2001), pp. 271-294</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0020" class="anchor pdf link anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378426699001296/pdfft?md5=4f65cca5f45550fc758758ba80864d08&pid=1-s2.0-S0378426699001296-main.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ernst Baltensperger</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Credit</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, Peter Newman (Eds.), The New Palgrave Money, Macmillan, Basingstoke (1989)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0035" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Credit&publication_year=1989&author=Ernst%20Baltensperger" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0050" id="ref-id-bb0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bank of England, 2014a</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Bank of England</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Bank of England's forecasting platform: COMPASS, MAPS, EASE and the suite of models</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Bank of England working paper no. 471 (2014)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0040" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=The%20Bank%20of%20Englands%20forecasting%20platform:%20COMPASS,%20MAPS,%20EASE%20and%20the%20suite%20of%20models" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Money in the modern economy: An introduction, by Michael McLeay, Amar Radia and Ryland Thomas of the bank's monetary analysis directorate</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Quarterly Bulletin, Q1 (2014)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0045" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Money%20in%20the%20modern%20economy:%20An%20introduction,%20by%20Michael%20McLeay,%20Amar%20Radia%20and%20Ryland%20Thomas%20of%20the%20banks%20monetary%20analysis%20directorate" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Negative interest rates idea floated by bank's Paul Tucker</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(2013, February 26)</div><div class="comment" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(accessed online)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0495" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Negative%20interest%20rates%20idea%20floated%20by%20banks%20Paul%20Tucker" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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padding: 0px;">Capital requirements and bank behaviour: The impact of the Basel Accord</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">BCBS working paper no. 1, BIS, Basel (1999, April)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0060" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Capital%20requirements%20and%20bank%20behaviour:%20The%20impact%20of%20the%20Basel%20Accord" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Credit in the macroeconomy</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">FRBNY Quarterly Review (1993), pp. 50-70</div><div class="comment" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(Spring 1992–93)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0505" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Credit%20in%20the%20macroeconomy&publication_year=1993&author=Ben%20Bernanke" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Bernanke and Blinder, 1989</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0510" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ben Bernanke, Alan S. Blinder</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0510" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Credit, money and aggregate demand</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">American Economic Review, 78 (1989), pp. 435-439</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0510" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Credit%2C%20money%20and%20aggregate%20demand&publication_year=1989&author=Ben%20Bernanke&author=Alan%20S.%20Blinder" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Inside the black box: The credit channel of monetary policy transmission</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9 (4) (1995), pp. 27-48</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button found-doi" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" doc-id="10.1257/jep.9.4.27" doc-type="doi" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">CrossRef</span></a><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0080" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Inside%20the%20black%20box%3A%20The%20credit%20channel%20of%20monetary%20policy%20transmission&publication_year=1995&author=Ben%20Bernanke&author=Mark%20Gertler" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">William Branson</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0090" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Financial Flows in the US Balance of Payments</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">North-Holland, Amsterdam (1968)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Barbara Casu, Claudia Girardone</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0100" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Bank competition, concentration and efficiency in the single European market</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Manchester School, 74 (4 Special Issue) (2006), pp. 441-468</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Crick, 1927</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0115" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">W.F. Crick</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0115" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The genesis of bank deposits</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economica (1927), pp. 191-202</div><div class="comment" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(says the same)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button found-doi" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" doc-id="10.2307/2548428" doc-type="doi" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;" tooltip-placement="left"><a class="es-link found-doi icon-small" part="container" style="color: var(--es-color-theme,#007398); cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; line-height: normal; transition: color var(--es-animation-hover,0.3s) ease,border-bottom-color var(--es-animation-hover,0.3s) ease;" target="_blank"><span class="text" part="label" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; display: inline-block; transition: border-bottom-color var(--es-animation-hover,0.3s); vertical-align: middle;">View article</span> </a></els-view-pdf-element></div><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0115" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2548428" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">CrossRef</span></a><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0115" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The%20genesis%20of%20bank%20deposits&publication_year=1927&author=W.F.%20Crick" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0160" id="ref-id-bb0160" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Davenport, 1913</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0125" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Herbert J. Davenport</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0125" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Economics of Enterprise</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Augustus M. Kelley, New York (1913)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0125" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The%20Economics%20of%20Enterprise&publication_year=1913&author=Herbert%20J.%20Davenport" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb9000" id="ref-id-bb9000" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Dewatripont et al, 2010</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf9010" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Mathias Dewatripont, Jean-Charles Rochet, Jean Tirole</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf9010" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Balancing the Banks: Global Lessons from the Financial Crisis</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Princeton University Press, Princeton (2010)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf9010" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Balancing%20the%20Banks%3A%20Global%20Lessons%20from%20the%20Financial%20Crisis&publication_year=2010&author=Mathias%20Dewatripont&author=Jean-Charles%20Rochet&author=Jean%20Tirole" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0165" id="ref-id-bb0165" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond, 1984</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0130" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Douglas W. Diamond</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0130" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Financial intermediation as delegated monitoring</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Review of Economic Studies, 51 (1984), pp. 393-414</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button found-doi" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" doc-id="10.2307/2297430" doc-type="doi" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;" tooltip-placement="left"><a class="es-link found-doi icon-small" part="container" style="color: var(--es-color-theme,#007398); cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; line-height: normal; transition: color var(--es-animation-hover,0.3s) ease,border-bottom-color var(--es-animation-hover,0.3s) ease;" target="_blank"><span class="text" part="label" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; display: inline-block; transition: border-bottom-color var(--es-animation-hover,0.3s); vertical-align: middle;">View article</span> </a></els-view-pdf-element></div><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0130" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2297430" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">CrossRef</span></a><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0130" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Financial%20intermediation%20as%20delegated%20monitoring&publication_year=1984&author=Douglas%20W.%20Diamond" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb9015" id="ref-id-bb9015" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond, 1991</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf9080" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Douglas W. Diamond</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf9080" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Monitoring and reputation: The choice between bank loans and directly placed debt</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Political Economy, 99 (4) (1991), pp. 689-721</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf9080" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Monitoring%20and%20reputation%3A%20The%20choice%20between%20bank%20loans%20and%20directly%20placed%20debt&publication_year=1991&author=Douglas%20W.%20Diamond" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb9020" id="ref-id-bb9020" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond, 2007, Spring</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf9085" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Douglas W. Diamond</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf9085" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Banks and liquidity creation: A simple exposition of the diamond-dybvig model</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economic Quarterly, 93 (2) (2007, Spring), pp. 189-200</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button failed" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" disabled="" doc-id="2-s2.0-65649101575" doc-type="scopus" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;" tooltip-placement="left"></els-view-pdf-element></div><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf9085" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-65649101575&partnerID=10&rel=R3.0.0" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">View in Scopus</span></a><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf9085" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Banks%20and%20liquidity%20creation:%20A%20simple%20exposition%20of%20the%20diamond-dybvig%20model" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0170" id="ref-id-bb0170" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond and Dybvig, 1983</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0135" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Douglas W. Diamond, P.H. Dybvig</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0135" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Bank runs, deposit insurance, and liquidity</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Political Economy, 91 (3) (1983), pp. 401-419</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0135" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Bank%20runs%2C%20deposit%20insurance%2C%20and%20liquidity&publication_year=1983&author=Douglas%20W.%20Diamond&author=P.H.%20Dybvig" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0175" id="ref-id-bb0175" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Diamond and Rajan, 2001</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0140" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Douglas W. Diamond, Raghuram G. Rajan</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0140" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Banks, short-term debt and financial crises: Theory, policy implications and applications</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, Vol. 54(1), Elsevier (2001, June), pp. 37-71</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0140" class="anchor pdf link anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167223101000392/pdf?md5=b1bc9413957a97043ba9a7229aff2d78&pid=1-s2.0-S0167223101000392-main.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Douglas, 1924</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0145" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">C.H. 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padding: 0px;">What's different about banks?</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Monetary Economics, 15 (1985) (1985), pp. 29-39</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0155" class="anchor pdf link anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0304393285900510/pdf?md5=3d386b1694f2e00804adaf065d413e75&pid=1-s2.0-0304393285900510-main.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; 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float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0195" id="ref-id-bb0195" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Gertler and Kiyotaki, 2011</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0160" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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Gertler, N. Kiyotaki</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0160" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Financial intermediation and credit policy in business cycle analysis</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">B. Friedman, M. 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transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Goodfriend, 1991, Jan/Feb</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0755" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Marvin Goodfriend</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0755" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Money, credit, banking, and payments system policy</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economic Review, Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond (1991, Jan/Feb), pp. 7-23</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button failed" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" disabled="" doc-id="2-s2.0-0040959360" doc-type="scopus" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;" tooltip-placement="left"></els-view-pdf-element></div><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0755" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0040959360&partnerID=10&rel=R3.0.0" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Goodhart, 1989</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0170" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">C.A.E. Goodhart</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0170" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Disintermediation</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, Peter Newman (Eds.), The new Palgrave money, Macmillan, Basingstoke (1989)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0170" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Disintermediation&publication_year=1989&author=C.A.E.%20Goodhart" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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Gurley, E.S. Shaw</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf9700" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Money in a Theory of Finance</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C. 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Guttentag, Robert Lindsay</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0525" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The uniqueness of commercial banks</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Political Economy, 76 (5) (1968, Sep.–Oct.), pp. 991-1014</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button failed" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" disabled="" doc-id="2-s2.0-84880063416" doc-type="scopus" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;" tooltip-placement="left"></els-view-pdf-element></div><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0525" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84880063416&partnerID=10&rel=R3.0.0" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">View in Scopus</span></a><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0525" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=The%20uniqueness%20of%20commercial%20banks" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0225" id="ref-id-bb0225" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hahn, 1920</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0180" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" lang="de" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Albert C. Hahn</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0180" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Volkswirtschaftliche Theorie des Bankkredits</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">J.C.B. Mohr, Tübingen (1920)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0180" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Volkswirtschaftliche%20Theorie%20des%20Bankkredits&publication_year=1920&author=Albert%20C.%20Hahn" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0230" id="ref-id-bb0230" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Hawtrey, 1919</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ralph George Hawtrey</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Currency and Credit</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Longmans, Green and Co. 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Kashyap</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf9065" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Japan's financial crisis and economic stagnation</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Economic Perspectives, 18 (1) (2004), pp. 3-26</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; 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box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes, 1924</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0230" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">John Maynard Keynes</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0230" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Tract on Monetary Reform</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Macmillan, London (1924)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0230" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Tract%20on%20Monetary%20Reform&publication_year=1924&author=John%20Maynard%20Keynes" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">John Maynard Keynes</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0235" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">A Treatise on Money</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Macmillan, London (1930)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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Klein</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0535" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">A theory of the banking firm</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 3 (1971, May), pp. 205-218</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button found-doi" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" doc-id="10.2307/1991279" doc-type="doi" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Georg Friedrich Knapp</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0250" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Staatliche Theorie des Geldes</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig (1905)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0305" id="ref-id-bb0305" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Kohn, 2009, October 9</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0540" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Donald Kohn</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0540" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Monetary policy research and the financial crisis: Strength and shortcomings</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Speech at the Federal Reserve Conference on key developments in monetary policy, Washington, D.C (2009, October 9)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0540" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Monetary%20policy%20research%20and%20the%20financial%20crisis:%20Strength%20and%20shortcomings" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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Lutz</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0260" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Velocity analysis and the theory of the creation of deposits</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economica, 6 (22) (1939, May), pp. 156-169</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0330" id="ref-id-bb0330" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">MacLeod, 1855–6</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0700" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Henry Dunning Macleod</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0700" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Theory and Practice of Banking, in 2 volumes</div></div><div class="comment" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Citations from the</div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(6th ed.), Longman, Greens and Co., London (1855–6)</div><div class="comment" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(1905)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0700" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=The%20Theory%20and%20Practice%20of%20Banking,%20in%202%20volumes" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0335" id="ref-id-bb0335" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">MacLeod, 1891</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0760" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Henry Dunning Macleod</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" id="ref-id-rf0760" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Theory of Credit, Vol. 2 (1891)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0340" id="ref-id-bb0340" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Macmillan Committee, 1931</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0275" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Macmillan Committee</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0275" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">British Parliamentary Reports on International Finance: The Report of the Macmillan Committee</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">H.M. 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box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0345" id="ref-id-bb0345" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Marshall, 1888</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0560" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Alfred Marshall</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0560" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Report by the Gold and Silver Commission of 1887, command 5512xxx</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Colin Mayer</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0570" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">New issues in corporate finance</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">European Economic Review, 32 (1988), pp. 1167-1188</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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Miller, David D. 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Phillips</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0315" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Bank Credit</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Macmillan, New York (1920)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0315" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Bank%20Credit&publication_year=1920&author=Chester%20A.%20Phillips" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0405" id="ref-id-bb0405" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Pigou, 1927</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Arthur C. Pigou</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Industrial Fluctuations</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(1927)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0580" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Industrial%20Fluctuations&publication_year=1927&author=Arthur%20C.%20Pigou" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb9080" id="ref-id-bb9080" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Ryan-Collins et al., 2011</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf9400" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Josh Ryan-Collins, Tony Greenham, Richard A. Werner, Andrew Jackson</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf9400" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Where does Money Come From?</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">New Economics Foundation, London (2011)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf9400" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Where%20does%20Money%20Come%20From" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Banking Policy and the Price</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(1926)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0590" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Banking%20Policy%20and%20the%20Price&publication_year=1926&author=Dennis%20Robertson" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; 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Werner, Andrew Jackson</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0595" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Where does Money Come From?</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(2nd ed.), New Economics Foundation, London (2012)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0595" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Where%20does%20Money%20Come%20From" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Samuelson, 1948</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0325" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Paul Samuelson</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0325" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economics</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">McGraw-Hill, New York (1948)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0325" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Economics&publication_year=1948&author=Paul%20Samuelson" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; 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word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Samuelson and Nordhaus, 1995</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0330" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Paul Samuelson, William Nordhaus</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0330" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economics</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">McGraw-Hill, New York (1995)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0330" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Economics&publication_year=1995&author=Paul%20Samuelson&author=William%20Nordhaus" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0445" id="ref-id-bb0445" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Saving, 1977</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0335" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Thomas R. Saving</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0335" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">A theory of the money supply with competitive banking</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Monetary Economics, 3 (1977), pp. 289-303</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0335" class="anchor pdf link anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/030439327790023X/pdfft?md5=104fb49b6996738268bd12583699cc07&pid=1-s2.0-030439327790023X-main.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter, 1912</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf9105" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Joseph Alois Schumpeter</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf9105" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Die Theorie der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung.</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Harvard University Press), Boston (1912)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf9105" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Die%20Theorie%20der%20wirtschaftlichen%20Entwicklung.&publication_year=1912&author=Joseph%20Alois%20Schumpeter" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; 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cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter, 1926</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf9990" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Joseph A. Schumpeter</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf9990" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Theorie der wirtschatlichen Entwicklung</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(2nd edition), Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig (1926)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf9990" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Theorie%20der%20wirtschatlichen%20Entwicklung&publication_year=1926&author=Joseph%20A.%20Schumpeter" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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Lindley</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0600" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Inputs, outputs and a theory of production and cost at depositary financial institutions</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Finance, 32 (1977), pp. 1251-1266</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0600" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Inputs%2C%20outputs%20and%20a%20theory%20of%20production%20and%20cost%20at%20depositary%20financial%20institutions&publication_year=1977&author=C.%20Sealey&author=J.T.%20Lindley" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Sheard, 1989</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0350" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Paul Sheard</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0350" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The mainbank system and corporate monitoring and control in Japan</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 11 (1989), pp. 399-422</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0350" class="anchor pdf link anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0167268189900371/pdf?md5=dc825cd9e0adcb6b71b0b2cf14366798&pid=1-s2.0-0167268189900371-main.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Smith, 1776</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0605" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Adam Smith</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0605" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Josiah Stamp</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0615" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Industrial fluctuations, by A.C. 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color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Stein, 2014, January 3</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0375" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Jeremy C. Stein</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0375" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Banks as patient debt investors</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">American Economic Association/American Finance Association Joint Luncheon, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (2014, January 3)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0375" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Banks%20as%20patient%20debt%20investors" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">An inquiry into the principles of political economy</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(1767)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0620" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=An%20inquiry%20into%20the%20principles%20of%20political%20economy&publication_year=1767&author=James%20Steuart" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0535" id="ref-id-bb0535" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Tobin, 1963</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0770" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">James Tobin</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0770" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Commercial banks as creators of ‘money’</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">D. 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">James Tobin</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0385" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">A general equilibrium approach to monetary theory</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 1 (1969), pp. 15-29</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0550" id="ref-id-bb0550" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Tooke, 1838</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0630" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Carl Walsh</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0400" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Monetary Theory and Policy</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">MIT Press, Cambridge (2003)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0400" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Monetary%20Theory%20and%20Policy&publication_year=2003&author=Carl%20Walsh" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0405" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Towards a quantity theory of disaggregated credit and international capital flows</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Paper presented at the Royal Economic Society Annual Conference, York, April 1993 and at the 5th Annual PACAP Conference on Pacific–Asian Capital Markets in Kuala Lumpur, June 1993, reviewed by the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economist</em> on 19 June 1993 in the Economics Focus (1992)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0405" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Towards%20a%20quantity%20theory%20of%20disaggregated%20credit%20and%20international%20capital%20flows&publication_year=1992&author=Richard%20A.%20Werner" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0575" id="ref-id-bb0575" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 1997</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0410" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A. Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0410" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Towards a new monetary paradigm: A quantity theorem of disaggregated credit, with evidence from Japan</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kredit und Kapital, 30 (2) (1997, July), pp. 276-309</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button failed" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" disabled="" doc-id="2-s2.0-0009869464" doc-type="scopus" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;" tooltip-placement="left"></els-view-pdf-element></div><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0410" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0009869464&partnerID=10&rel=R3.0.0" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">View in Scopus</span></a><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0410" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Towards%20a%20new%20monetary%20paradigm:%20A%20quantity%20theorem%20of%20disaggregated%20credit,%20with%20evidence%20from%20Japan" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb9155" id="ref-id-bb9155" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2002</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf9995" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A. Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf9995" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Monetary policy implementation in Japan: What they say versus what they do</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Asian Economic Journal, 16 (2) (2002), pp. 111-151</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button failed" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" disabled="" doc-id="2-s2.0-0036328335" doc-type="scopus" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;" tooltip-placement="left"></els-view-pdf-element></div><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf9995" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-0036328335&partnerID=10&rel=R3.0.0" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">View in Scopus</span></a><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf9995" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Monetary%20policy%20implementation%20in%20Japan%3A%20What%20they%20say%20versus%20what%20they%20do&publication_year=2002&author=Richard%20A.%20Werner" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0585" id="ref-id-bb0585" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2003a</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0420" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A. Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0420" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Princes of the Yen, Japan's Central Bankers and the Transformation of the Economy</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">M.E. Sharpe, New York (2003)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0420" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Princes%20of%20the%20Yen,%20Japans%20Central%20Bankers%20and%20the%20Transformation%20of%20the%20Economy" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0590" id="ref-id-bb0590" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2003b</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0715" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A. Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0715" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">A discussion of Anil K. Kashyap's paper ‘Sorting out Japan's financial crisis’</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Japanese Economy, Vol. 30 (no. 4), M.E. Sharpe, New York (2003)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0715" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=A%20discussion%20of%20Anil%20K.%20Kashyaps%20paper%20Sorting%20out%20Japans%20financial%20crisis" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0580" id="ref-id-bb0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2005</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0415" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A. Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0415" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">New paradigm in macroeconomics</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke (2005)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0415" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=New%20paradigm%20in%20macroeconomics&publication_year=2005&author=Richard%20A.%20Werner" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0595" id="ref-id-bb0595" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2010a</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0640" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A. Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0640" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Comment on “Strengthening the resilience of the banking sector”</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Official submission to public call for comments on ‘Strengthening the resilience of the banking sector, consultative document’ by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, September 2009, Bank for International Settlements, Basel (2010)</div><div class="comment" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(<a class="anchor u-display-inline anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="http://www.bis.org/publ/bcbs164.htm" rel="noreferrer noopener" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">http://www.bis.org/publ/bcbs164.htm</span></a> Submitted 16 April 2010)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0640" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Comment%20on%20Strengthening%20the%20resilience%20of%20the%20banking%20sector" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0600" id="ref-id-bb0600" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2010b</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="or0155" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="other-ref" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Werner, R.A. (2010b), Towards stable and competitive banking in the UK — Evidence for the ICB, University of Southampton CBFSD Discussion Paper 2010, submitted to the Independent Commission on Banking, UK (Chair: Professor Sir John Vickers), submitted 19 November 2010 <a class="anchor u-display-inline anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/342277/1/Werner_Soton_Towards_Stable_Banking_201011.pdf" rel="noreferrer noopener" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/342277/1/Werner_Soton_Towards_Stable_Banking_201011.pdf</span></a>.</span></div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Werner,%20R.A.%20,%20Towards%20stable%20and%20competitive%20banking%20in%20the%20UK%20%20Evidence%20for%20the%20ICB,%20University%20of%20Southampton%20CBFSD%20Discussion%20Paper%202010,%20submitted%20to%20the%20Independent%20Commission%20on%20Banking,%20UK%20,%20submitted%2019%20November%202010%20http:eprints.soton.ac.uk3422771Werner_Soton_Towards_Stable_Banking_201011.pdf." rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0605" id="ref-id-bb0605" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2012</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0430" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A. Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0430" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Towards a new research programme on ‘Banking and the economy’ — Implications of the quantity theory of credit for the prevention and resolution of banking and debt crises</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">International Review of Financial Analysis, 25 (2012), pp. 94-105, <a class="anchor anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irfa.2012.06.002" rel="noreferrer noopener" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">10.1016/j.irfa.2012.06.002</span></a></div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button found" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" doc-id="10.1038/ismej.2011.82" doc-type="doi" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2013a</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0435" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A. Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0435" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Towards a more stable and sustainable financial architecture — A discussion and application of the quantity theory of credit</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Kredit und Kapital, 46 (3) (2013), pp. 353-389</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><els-view-pdf-element class="universal-pdf-button failed" data-config="{"seamlessAccessEnabled":false,"states":[{"name":"found","label":"View PDF","iconSize":"small"},{"name":"found-doi","label":"View article","icon":"<!-- no icon -->","iconSize":"small","show":true}],"integratorId":8301}" disabled="" doc-id="2-s2.0-84890330589" doc-type="scopus" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative;" tooltip-placement="left"></els-view-pdf-element></div><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0435" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84890330589&partnerID=10&rel=R3.0.0" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">View in Scopus</span></a><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0435" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Towards%20a%20more%20stable%20and%20sustainable%20financial%20architecture%20%20A%20discussion%20and%20application%20of%20the%20quantity%20theory%20of%20credit" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0620" id="ref-id-bb0620" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2013b</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0440" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Richard A. Werner</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0440" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Commentary: Crises, the spatial distribution of economic activity and the geography of banking</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Environment & Planning A, 45 (2013), pp. 2789-2796</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="link u-margin-m-right u-display-inline" style="box-sizing: border-box; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; 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box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell, 1898</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0660" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" lang="de" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Knut Wicksell</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0660" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Geldzins und Güterpreise</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0630" id="ref-id-bb0630" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell, 1907</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0445" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Knut Wicksell</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0445" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The influence of the rate of interest on prices</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Economic Journal, 17 (1907), pp. 213-220</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell, 1922</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0665" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" lang="de" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Knut Wicksell</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0665" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Vorlesungen über Nationalökonomie auf Grundlage des Marginalprinzipes/Bd. 2</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Geld und Kredit, Jena (1922)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0665" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Vorlesungen%20%C3%BCber%20National%C3%B6konomie%20auf%20Grundlage%20des%20MarginalprinzipesBd.%202" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0640" id="ref-id-bb0640" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell, 1935</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Knut Wicksell</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Lectures on Political Economy</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Routledge, London (1935)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0450" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Lectures%20on%20Political%20Economy&publication_year=1935&author=Knut%20Wicksell" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0665" id="ref-id-bb0665" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Withers, 1909</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0680" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Hartley Withers</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0680" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Meaning of Money</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(1909)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0680" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The%20Meaning%20of%20Money&publication_year=1909&author=Hartley%20Withers" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Business of Finance</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(1916)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0685" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=The%20Business%20of%20Finance&publication_year=1916&author=Hartley%20Withers" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0675" id="ref-id-bb0675" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; 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box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0680" id="ref-id-bb0680" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wolfe, 1997</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0735" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Simon Wolfe</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0735" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">An Economic Analysis of Financial Institutions' Accounting Practice</div></div><div class="comment" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(Dissertation submitted in the)</div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Department of Management, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Southampton (1997)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0735" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=An%20Economic%20Analysis%20of%20Financial%20Institutions%20Accounting%20Practice" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px 24px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; white-space: nowrap; word-break: break-word;" target="_blank"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Google Scholar</span></a></div></dd><dt class="label u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; float: left; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0685" id="ref-id-bb0685" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Woodford, 2003</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0470" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Michael Woodford</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0470" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Interest and Prices</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Princeton University, Princeton (2003)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; 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margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 0px 0px;"><a class="anchor anchor-default" data-aa-button="sd:product:journal:article:location=references:type=anchor:name=citation-name" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bbb0690" id="ref-id-bb0690" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Yohe, 1995</span></a></dt><dd class="reference" id="rf0475" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px 48px; padding: 0px;"><div class="contribution" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><div class="authors u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">William P. Yohe</div><div class="title text-m" id="ref-id-rf0475" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 18px; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Interactive Money and Banking</div></div><div class="host u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Blackwell, Oxford (1995)</div><div class="ReferenceLinks u-font-sans" style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: NexusSans, Arial, Helvetica, "Lucida Sans Unicode", "Microsoft Sans Serif", "Segoe UI Symbol", STIXGeneral, "Cambria Math", "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif; margin: 4px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><a aria-describedby="ref-id-rf0475" class="anchor link anchor-default anchor-external-link" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Interactive%20Money%20and%20Banking&publication_year=1995&author=William%20P.%20Yohe" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: border-box; 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font-size: 0.7rem; line-height: var(--sd-ui-line-height); margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#baep-article-footnote-id1" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">☆</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The author wishes to acknowledge excellent research support from Dr. Kostas Voutsinas and Shamsher Dhanda. Moreover, the author is grateful to the many bank staff at numerous banks involved in this study, who have given their time for meetings and interviews. Most of all, the author would like to thank Mr. Marco Rebl, Director of Raiffeisenbank Wildenberg e.G., for his cooperation and arranging the cooperation of his colleagues in conducting the empirical examination of bank credit creation and making the facilities, accounts and staff of his bank accessible to the researcher. Finally, should grains of wisdom be found in this article, the author wishes to attribute them to the source of all wisdom (Jeremiah 33:3).</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">1</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Translated into English by the author. See also <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0640" name="bbb0640" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wicksell (1935)</span></a>.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0010" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Federal Reserve Vice-Chairman <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0305" name="bbb0305" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Kohn (2009)</span></a> bemoaned this issue. Examples of leading macroeconomic and monetary models without any banks include <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0565" name="bbb0565" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Walsh (2003)</span></a> and <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0685" name="bbb0685" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Woodford (2003)</span></a>, but this problem applies to all the conventional macromodels proposed by the major conventional schools of thought, such as the classical, Keynesian, monetarist and neo-classical theories, including real business cycle and DSGE models.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0015" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">3</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The ‘Basel’ approach to bank regulation focuses on regulation of capital adequacy. <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0595" name="bbb0595" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner (2010a)</span></a> has argued that this is based on economic theories that do not feature a special role for banks. For an overview and critique, see <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0605" name="bbb0605" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner (2012)</span></a>.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0020" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">4</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">One older attempt that has stood up to the test of time is <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0575" name="bbb0575" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner (1997)</span></a>.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0025" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">5</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">See, for instance, the first BCBS Working Paper (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0075" name="bbb0075" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">BCBS, 1999</span></a>), looking back on the first decade of experience with Basel I for insights into the thinking of the Basel bank regulators. In a section headlined ‘Do fixed minimum capital requirements create credit crunches affecting the real economy?’, the authors argue: “It would in fact be strange if fixed minimum capital requirements did not bite in some periods, thereby constraining the banks, given that the purpose of bank [capital] requirements is to limit the amount of risk that can be taken relative to capital. However, for this to have an effect on output, it would have to be true that any shortfall in bank lending was not fully made up through lending by other intermediaries or by access to securities markets.” This statement presupposes that the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em> holds. If banks are the creators of the money supply, and in this role unique and different from non-bank financial intermediaries, as the other two hypotheses maintain, then a reduction in bank credit (creation) must have effects that non-bank financial intermediaries cannot compensate for.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0030" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">6</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">See, for instance, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0580" name="bbb0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2005</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0595" name="bbb0595" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2010a</span></a>.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0035" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">7</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">As seen in the work of the Independent Commission on Banking, ICB, 2011, also known as the Vickers Commission. For contributions to the consultation of the ICB, see, for instance, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0600" name="bbb0600" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner (2010b)</span></a>. The recommendations therein, especially the recommendation to discard the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>, were not heeded.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0040" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">8</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0045" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The practice of issuance of promissory notes by commercial banks has continued for far longer in Scotland and Northern Ireland — namely until today. This did not seem, however, to result in a sizeable literature on bank money creation in the UK throughout the 20th century.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0045" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">9</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Referring to the issuance of bank notes that circulate as paper money, Smith comments “The banks, when their customers apply to them for money, generally advance it to them in their own promissory notes” (p. 242). … “It is chiefly by discounting bills of exchange, that is, by advancing money upon them before they are due, that the greater part of banks and bankers issue their promissory notes. … The banker, who advances to the merchant whose bill he discounts, not gold and silver, but his own promissory notes, has the advantage of being able to discount to a greater amount by the whole value of his promissory notes, which he finds, by experience, are commonly in circulation. He is thereby enabled to make his clear gain of interest on so much a larger sum” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0475" name="bbb0475" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Smith, 1776, p. 241</span></a>).</p><p id="np0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Jeder Provinzialbanquier strebt dahin, sein Privatgeld zum Nationalgelde zu erheben: er strebt nach der größtmöglichen und möglichst allgemeinen Umsetzbarkeit seines Privatgeldes. Es ist in England nicht bloß die Regierung, welche Geld macht, sondern die Bank von England, jede Privatbank, ja jede einzelne Haushaltung (ohne gerade bestimmte Noten auszugeben, aber, in wie fern sie sich an eine bestimmte Bank thätig anschließt) helfen das Geld machen” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0385" name="bbb0385" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Müller, 1816, p. 240</span></a>).</p><p id="np0060" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Sobald die Regierung also die Geldzeichen mechanisch vermehrt, ohne in demselben Maaße jene andern Organe, denen die Vortheile der Geldvermehrung nur indirekt zu gute kommen, zu stärken, ohne um so kräftiger und gerechter das Ganze zu umfassen, so überträgt sie im Grunde nur das Privilegium der Gelderzeugung, das sie im Nahmen des Ganzen ausübt, auf ein einzelnes Organ. … sollte sie [die Regierung] also ihr Privilegium der Gelderzeugung nicht bloß aufheben, sondern das bisher erzeugte Geld zurück nehmen, so gibt sie damit nur dem Privatcredit, das heißt, dem verwöhnten verderbten Privatcredit, oder dem Wucher die förmliche Befugniß in die Hände, die Lücken zu ergänzen, selbst Geldmarken zu machen, und somit seinen verderblichen und vernichtenden Einfluß auf das Ganze nun erst recht zu äußern” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0385" name="bbb0385" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Müller, 1816, p. 305</span></a>).</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0050" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">10</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0065" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">There is also another group of writers who to some extent agree with this description, but one way or another downplay its role or importance in practice. In terms of the history of economic thought it can be said that the latter group laid the groundwork and were the founding fathers of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>. To the extent that they recognise the creation of credit by banks out of nothing under certain circumstances one might argue that they could be classified as supporter of either the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">credit creation theory</em> or the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em>, but to minimise confusion, here the impact their work has had in its common interpretation was chosen, as well as their emphasis on reserves as a key mechanism, so that they were included in the latter theory.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0055" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">11</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0070" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">An Inn of Court with the status of a local authority, inside the territory of the City of London Corporation.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0060" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">12</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0075" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">This paper was read by Wicksell in London in the Economic Section of the British Association in 1906 and it is recorded in the Economic Journal that Palgrave and Edgeworth commented on it. There is no mentioning of any objections to the claims about the ability of banks to create money out of nothing.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0065" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">13</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0080" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Since, then, variations in the quantity of currency have these widespread effects, it is a matter which bankers have to consider seriously, how far it is possible from them to apply some scientific regulation to the volume of currency, and whether it is possible to modify the evils that follow from wide fluctuations in prices by some such regulation” (p. 55). For a more recent application and more precise formulation of this principle, see Werner's Quantity Theory of Credit (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0570" name="bbb0570" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 1992</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0575" name="bbb0575" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 1997</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0580" name="bbb0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2005</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0605" name="bbb0605" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2012</span></a>).</p><p id="np0085" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“… the most important of the modern forms of currency, namely the cheque, is, in effect, manufactured for the use of its customers by banks; and, further, that since the volume of currency has an important effect upon raising prices, the extent to which currency is thus created is a responsibility which has to be seriously considered by those who work the financial machine. This manufacture of currency is worked through the granting of credit, and credit may thus be defined, for the purposes of this inquiry, as the process by which finance makes currency for its customers. As we saw in the last chapter, deposits, which are potential currency as they carry with them the right to draw a cheque, are produced largely through the loans, discounts and investments made by bankers” (p. 63).</p><p id="np0090" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“The creation of credit is thus seen clearly to result in the manufacture of currency whenever the banks buy bills of exchange … or make an advance …. In either case the banks give somebody the right to draw cheques. … When a bank makes an advance to a stock broker the result is exactly the same …. The same result, in rather a different form, happens when a bank makes investments on its own account. … There has thus been, in each case, an increase in deposits through the operation of the bank in lending, discounting, or investing. If we can imagine all the banks suddenly selling all their investments and bills of exchange and calling in all their advances, the process could only be brought about by the cancelling of deposits, their own and one another's” (p. 72).</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0070" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">14</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0095" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Etwas Ähnliches wie eine Bescheinigung künftiger Produkte oder wie die Verleihung von Zahlkraft an die Versprechungen des Unternehmers gibt es nun wirklich. Das ist der Dienst, den der Bankier dem Unternehmer erweist und um den sich der Unternehmer an den Bankier wendet. … so wäre er nicht Zwischenhändler, sondern <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Produzent von Kredit</em>, d.h. er würde die Kaufkraft, die er dem Unternehmer leiht, selbst schaffen …. Man könnte ohne große Sünde sagen, daß der Bankier Geld schaffe” (S. 197). Translated by author.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0075" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">15</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0100" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Die fiktive Bescheinigung von Produkten, die die Kreditzahlungsmittel sozusagen ursprünglich darstellten, ist zur Wahrheit geworden” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0450" name="bbb0450" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Schumpeter, 1912, S. 223</span></a>). Translated by author.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0080" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">16</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0105" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">For instance, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0375" name="bbb0375" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Moeller (1925)</span></a> states that “In the modern monetary system the creation of new paper or bank accounting currency (‘Buchungsgeld’, or ‘bank book money’) is primarily in the hands of the banks. … For the deposit money the same largely applies as for paper money …” (pp. 177 ff.).</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0085" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">17</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0110" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Jeder Kredit der gegeben wird, erzeugt seinerseits ein Deposit und damit die Mittel zu seiner Unterbringung. … Die Folgerung aus dem skizzierten Vorgang kann man auch umgekehrt ausrücken, indem man sagt – und dieser Schluß ist ebenso zwingend – , daß jedes irgendwie und irgendwo in der Volkswirtschaft vorhandene Scheck- oder Ueberweisungsguthaben sein Entstehen einer vorausgegangenen Kreditgewährung, einem zuvor eingeräumten Kredit zu verdanken hat” (S. 28). Translated by author.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0090" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">18</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0115" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“Wir behaupten also im Gegensatz zu der gesamten, in dieser Beziehung so gut wie einigen Bank- und Kreditliteratur, daß nicht das Passivgeschäft der Banken, insbesondere das Depositengeschäft das Primäre ist, sondern daß allgemein und in jedem einzelnen Falle ein Aktivgeschäft einer Bank vorangegangen sein muß, um erst das Passivgeschäft einer Bank möglich zu machen und es hervorzurufen: Das Passivgeschäft der Banken ist nichts anderes als ein Reflex vorangegangener Kreditgewährung. Die entgegengesetzte Ansicht beruht auf einer Art optischer Täuschung …” (S. 29). Translated by author.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0095" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">19</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0120" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">See, for instance, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0400" name="bbb0400" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Phillips (1920, p. 72, p. 119)</span></a>.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0100" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">20</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0125" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">This is in line with the credit supply determination view proposed by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0575" name="bbb0575" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 1997</span></a>, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0580" name="bbb0580" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner, 2005</span></a> and his Quantity Theory of Credit, as opposed to the endogenous credit supply view of many post-Keynesians.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0105" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">21</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0130" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">His analysis was based on the “overlooked … pivotal fact that an addition to the usual volume of a bank's loans tends to result in a <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">loss of reserve</em> for that bank only somewhat less on average than the amount of the additional loans. … Manifold loans are not extended by an individual bank on the basis of a given amount of reserve” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0400" name="bbb0400" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Phillips, 1920, p. 73</span></a>).</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0110" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">22</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0135" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">It should be noted here that <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0400" name="bbb0400" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Phillips' (1920)</span></a> work can be interpreted in a more differentiated manner. For instance, Phillips did also point out that if all banks increased their lending at roughly the same pace, each bank <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">would</em>, after all, be able to create credit without losing reserves or cash, on balance (pp. 78 ff.). However, subsequent writers citing Phillips usually do not mention this. While a more detailed discussion of Phillips is, however, beyond the scope of this paper, it is here merely claimed that Phillips' argument was an important stepping stone towards the formulation of the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">fractional reserve theory</em> of banking, which is unequivocal in treating individual banks as mere financial intermediaries without the power to create credit or money individually under any and all circumstances, even though it could possibly be argued that Phillips himself may not have agreed with the latter in all respects.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0115" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">23</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0140" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">In the <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#s0005" name="bs0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Introduction</span></a>, Robertson says: “I have had so many discussions with Mr. J. M. Keynes on the subject matter of chapters V and VI, and have rewritten them so drastically at his suggestion, that I think neither of us now knows how much of the ideas therein contained is his, and how much is mine (p. 5).” (As cited in <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0280" name="bbb0280" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Keynes, 1930</span></a>.)</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0120" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">24</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0145" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">On Paul Tucker's proposal, see <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0070" name="bbb0070" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">BBC (2013)</span></a>, and also the critique by <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0615" name="bbb0615" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner (2013a)</span></a>. Negative rates on bank reserves at the central bank were actually imposed by the Swedish central bank in 2009, the Danish central bank in 2012 and for the first time by the Swiss central bank in 1978 on deposits by foreign banks.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0125" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">25</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0150" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Even though a closer reading of <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0005" name="bbb0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Alhadeff (1954)</span></a> shows that the author agreed that, under certain circumstances, banks can create credit and money: “In certain cases, the proportion between the legal reserve ratio and residual deposits is such that even a single bank can expand its deposits to a somewhat greater amount than its primary deposits. … Again, it might be possible for a very large bank, or a bank in an isolated community with few business connections with outside banks, literally to create money because of flow back deposits. [Footnote: ‘Flow-back deposits refer to the circulation of deposits among the depositors of the same bank.’] In either case, this amounts to a partial reduction in the average cost of producing credit (making loans), at least in terms of the raw material costs …” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0005" name="bbb0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Alhadeff, 1954, p. 7</span></a>). Although Alhadeff, if studied closely, could be said to have agreed that an individual bank can create credit out of nothing, he clearly thought this to be a special case without practical relevance, while it is normally only the banking system in aggregate that creates credit.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0130" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">26</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0155" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Moreover, the original <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0425" name="bbb0425" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Samuelson (1948: 331)</span></a> offered an important (even though not prominently displayed) section headed ‘Simultaneous expansion or contraction by all banks’, which provided the caveat that each individual bank could, after all, create deposits, if only all banks did the same at the same rate (thus outflows being on balance cancelled by inflows, as <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0005" name="bbb0005" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Alhadeff, 1954</span></a>, also mentioned). There is no such reference in the modern, ‘up-to-date’ textbook.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0135" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">27</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0160" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">The conclusion of Tobin's paper: “According to this approach, the principal way in which financial policies and events affect aggregate demand is by changing the valuations of physical assets relative to their replacement costs. Monetary policies can accomplish such changes, but other exogenous events can too. In addition to the exogenous variables explicitly listed in the illustrative models, changes can occur, and undoubtedly do, in the portfolio preferences – asset demand functions – of the public, the banks, and other sectors. These preferences are based on expectations, estimates of risk, attitudes towards risk, and a host of other factors. In this complex situation, it is not to be expected that the essential impact of monetary policies and other financial events will be easy to measure in the absence of direct observation of the relevant variables (q in the models). There is no reason to think that the impact will be captured in any single exogenous or intermediate variable, whether it is a monetary stock or a market interest rate” (<a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0540" name="bbb0540" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Tobin, 1969, p. 29</span></a>).</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0140" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">28</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0165" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">This also means that the innumerable PhD theses and Masters dissertations produced in this area in the last thirty years or so are mainly based on the <em style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">financial intermediation theory</em>. For instance, <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0680" name="bbb0680" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Wolfe (1997)</span></a> states: “Banks possess the power of intermediation, which is the ability to transform deposits into loans. Deposits with one set of characteristics are transformed into assets with other or different characteristics” (p. 12).</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0145" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">29</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0170" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">See <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb0585" name="bbb0585" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Werner (2003b)</span></a> for a detailed critique of <a class="anchor workspace-trigger u-display-inline anchor-paragraph" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bb9550" name="bbb9550" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #0c7dbb; display: inline; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;">Kashyap (2002)</span></a>.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0150" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">30</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0175" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Though with the caveat that several of his statements, made at the same time, seem to support different theories of banking.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0155" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">31</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0180" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">It is of interest that the last step expressly requires the bank staff implementing this credit procedure to only pay out the loan for the agreed purpose, as evidence for which a receipt for any purchases undertaken with the loan funds are demanded by the bank. This demonstrates that the implementation of policies of credit guidance by purpose of the loan is practically possible, since such data is available and the use of the loan is monitored and enforced by each bank.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0160" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">32</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0185" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">Thanks to Charlie Haswell for the ‘fairy dust’ allegory.</p></dd></dl><dl class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: flex; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><dt class="footnote-label" style="-webkit-box-flex: 0; box-sizing: border-box; flex: 0 0 48px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="anchor u-padding-s-hor u-padding-xs u-display-inline-block anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521914001070#bfn0165" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #007398; display: inline-block; margin: 0px; padding: 8px 16px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s; word-break: break-word;"><span class="anchor-text" style="border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition: border-bottom-color 0.3s ease 0s;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 14px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">33</span></span></a></dt><dd class="footnote-detail u-padding-xs-top" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; box-sizing: border-box; flex-grow: 1; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 8px !important; padding: 8px 0px 0px;"><p id="np0190" style="box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 16px; padding: 0px;">“There is a common element in the theories of nearly all monetary heretics. Their theories of Money and Credit are alike in supposing that in some way the banks can furnish all the real resources which manufacture and trade can reasonably require without real cost to anyone …. For they argue thus. Money (meaning loans) is the life-blood of industry. If money (in this sense) is available in sufficient quantity and on easy terms, we shall have no difficulty in employing to the full the entire available supply of the factors of production. For the individual trader or manufacturer “bank credit” means “working capital”; a loan from his bank furnishes him with the means to pay wages, to buy materials and to carry stocks. If, therefore, sufficient bank credit was freely available, there need never be unemployment. Why then, he asks, if the banks can create credit, should they refuse any reasonable request for it? And why should they charge a fee for what costs them little or nothing? … There can only be one answer: the bankers, having a monopoly of magic, exercise their powers sparingly in order to raise the price. … Where magic is at work, the public do not get the full benefit unless it is nationalised. Our heretic admits, indeed, that we must take care to avoid “inflation”; but that only occurs when credit is created which does not correspond to any productive process. To create credit to meet a genuine demand for working capital can never be inflationary; for such a credit is “self-liquidating” and is automatically paid off when the process of production is finished. … If the creation of credit is strictly confined within these limits, there can never be inflation. Further, there is no reason for making any charge for such credit beyond what is required to meet bad debts and the expense of administration. Not a week, perhaps not a day or an hour, goes by in which some well-wisher of mankind does not suddenly see the light — that here is the key to Utopia” (vol. 2, pp. 217 ff.).</p></dd></dl></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5943775359435639336.post-10022441069619061322023-03-03T04:23:00.007-08:002023-03-03T07:01:16.644-08:00Quantum Computing: The Next Frontier Or A Hype-Filled Bubble?<p> </p><div class="article-headline-container" style="box-sizing: inherit; position: relative;"><div class="header-content-container" style="box-sizing: inherit;"><h1 class="fs-headline speakable-headline font-base font-size should-redesign" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-family: Merriweather, Georgia, serif; font-size: 36px; line-height: 1.22; margin-block: 0px; margin: 8px 0px 0px; min-height: 120px;"><br /></h1><h4 id="pressboard-ad-sponsorship-tag_1677846098125" style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 1.25rem; 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margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><em style="box-sizing: inherit;">Founder of </em><a aria-label="Intellisystem Technologies" class="color-link" data-ga-track="ExternalLink:https://www.intellisystem.it/" href="https://www.intellisystem.it/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #003891; cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="https://www.intellisystem.it/"><em data-ga-track="ExternalLink:https://www.intellisystem.it/" style="box-sizing: inherit;">Intellisystem Technologies</em></a><em style="box-sizing: inherit;">. Scientific researcher and professor at eCampus University. NASA Genelab AWG AI/ML member.</em></p><div class="halfway_hardwall_1" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"></div><figure class="embed-base image-embed embed-2" role="presentation" style="box-sizing: inherit; break-inside: avoid; clear: both; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><div style="box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 0; overflow: hidden; position: relative;"><span class="image-embed__placeholder" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: block; height: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-top: 324.922px; position: relative;"><progressive-image alt="Quantum computer CPU and Computer chip concept Central Computer Processor" class="show-img" data-height="961" data-width="1709" enhanced="" src="https://specials-images.forbesimg.com/imageserve/6335d06f4ce6892aac377afb/Quantum-computer-CPU-and-Computer-chip-concept--Central-Computer-Processor/960x0.jpg?fit=scale" style="-webkit-box-pack: center; box-sizing: inherit; display: flex; height: 324.922px; justify-content: center; left: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 579px;"><img alt="Quantum computer CPU and Computer chip concept Central Computer Processor" src="https://imageio.forbes.com/specials-images/imageserve/6335d06f4ce6892aac377afb/Quantum-computer-CPU-and-Computer-chip-concept--Central-Computer-Processor/960x0.jpg?format=jpg&width=960" style="border-style: none; box-sizing: inherit; display: block; height: 324.922px; max-width: 100%; width: auto;" /></progressive-image></span></div><figcaption style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #737373; font-family: "Work Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 0.75rem; line-height: 1.67; margin-top: 0.5em;"><p class="color-body light-text" style="box-sizing: inherit; display: inline; margin: 0px 8px 0px 0px;"><small style="box-sizing: inherit; font-size: 10px; line-height: 2; text-transform: uppercase;">GETTY</small></p></figcaption></figure><div class="article_paragraph_2" style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"></div><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">Quantum computing is a new approach founded on quantum mechanics principles to perform calculations. Unlike classical computers, which store information in bits (either 0 or 1), quantum computers use quantum bits or "qubits" that can exist in multiple states simultaneously. This physics property allows quantum computers to perform specific calculations much faster than classical computers.</p><div class="halfway_hardwall_2" style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"></div><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">The potential applications of quantum computing are vast and include fields such as cryptography, finance and drug discovery. It promises to transform multiple industries and tackle challenges that classical computers cannot solve.</p><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">However, critics claim that the excitement around quantum computing is exaggerated and resembles a <a aria-label="bubble" class="color-link" data-ga-track="ExternalLink:https://www.ft.com/content/6d2e34ab-f9fd-4041-8a96-91802bab7765" href="https://www.ft.com/content/6d2e34ab-f9fd-4041-8a96-91802bab7765" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #003891; cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="https://www.ft.com/content/6d2e34ab-f9fd-4041-8a96-91802bab7765">bubble</a> more than a genuine technological advancement. They highlight that despite years of research, practical uses of quantum computing are <a aria-label="limited and scarce" class="color-link" data-ga-track="ExternalLink:https://www.ft.com/content/46b79149-81bd-47d2-98a8-0f60f4cf501a" href="https://www.ft.com/content/46b79149-81bd-47d2-98a8-0f60f4cf501a" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #003891; cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank" title="https://www.ft.com/content/46b79149-81bd-47d2-98a8-0f60f4cf501a">limited and scarce</a>, indicating the need for further improvement.</p><div class="halfway_hardwall_4" style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"></div><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">Researchers still need time to develop a functional and scalable quantum computer, and some claims about its capabilities may need reconsideration.</p><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">Critics also argue that investors currently base their investments in quantum computing on speculation and hype rather than a clear comprehension of its potential. Several startups are already claiming to be the "next big thing" in quantum computing, but many of these companies may not be around in a few years if the bubble bursts.</p><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">Another challenge is that quantum computing demands a thorough understanding of quantum mechanics, which requires better communication with non-experts, making it challenging for them to evaluate the potential of quantum computing and distinguish between credible and exaggerated claims.</p><div class="article_paragraph_7" style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"></div><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">By focusing on these critical points, non-experts can better understand quantum computing and distinguish between credible and overhyped claims:</p><p style="background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; font-variant-ligatures: common-ligatures; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Basics of quantum mechanics: </span>Explain the principles of quantum mechanics and how it differs from classical mechanics.</p><div class="article-body fs-article fs-responsive-text current-article" style="box-sizing: inherit; line-height: 30px; max-width: 42em;"><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Quantum computing vs. classical computing:</span> Compare and contrast quantum computing with classical computing, highlighting the strengths and limitations of each.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Quantum bit (qubit):</span> Discuss the fundamental building block of quantum computing (the qubit) and how it differs from classical bits.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Quantum algorithms: </span>Highlight a few examples of quantum algorithms and how they solve specific problems that classical computers cannot.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Real-world applications:</span> Explain a few practical applications of quantum computing and how they can impact various industries such as healthcare, finance and logistics.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Limitations and challenges: </span>Discuss the current limits and challenges of quantum computing, such as scalability and the need for further research and development.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">Understanding the evolution of quantum computing is essential to stay ahead of technological advancements, making informed investment decisions, preparing for societal impacts and advancing scientific knowledge.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">More specifically, the reasons are:</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Technological advancement: </span>Quantum computing can revolutionize the way many industries operate and solve problems currently unsolvable with classical computers. Understanding its evolution can help us predict its future impact and prepare for it.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Investment decisions: </span>Quantum computing is a rapidly growing industry with significant investment opportunities. Understanding its evolution can help investors make informed decisions about investments in the field.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Impact on society:</span> Quantum computing has the potential to impact society in many ways, such as improving healthcare, finance and logistics. Understanding its evolution can help policymakers and the community prepare for and manage these impacts.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Scientific advancement:</span> Quantum computing is a cutting-edge science field still in its early stages. Understanding its evolution can help researchers and scientists explore new frontiers and advance our knowledge.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">To understand the evolution of quantum computing, one can follow these steps:</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Study the history: </span>Get familiar with the historical milestones and critical developments in quantum computing. From the first theories in the 1980s to recent breakthroughs, studying the evolution of quantum computing will give you a better understanding of the field.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Learn the basics: </span>Acquire a foundational understanding of quantum mechanics and the principles behind quantum computing. Understanding the basic concepts and theories of quantum computing will help you appreciate the field's evolution.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Follow the research:</span> Stay up to date with the latest research and development in quantum computing by regularly reading scientific papers, attending conferences and following leading researchers in the field.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Engage with the community:</span> Participate in online forums, attend workshops and conferences, and connect with researchers, engineers and enthusiasts in quantum computing.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-weight: 700;">• Evaluate the progress: </span>Assess the progress made in quantum computing over time and compare it to the goals and expectations set by the scientific community.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">By following these steps, you can gain a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of quantum computing and stay informed about its latest developments.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">In conclusion, quantum computing has the considerable potential to be a game-changer in many industries, but it's still too early to say whether it will live up to its hype. There are many challenges to overcome, including developing practical, scalable quantum computers and understanding quantum mechanics. Whether or not the current investment in quantum computing is a bubble remains to be seen, but one thing is for sure: The next few years will be critical in determining the future of this field.</p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;">For this, it is essential to understand the evolution of quantum computing by following the development and the related market.</p><hr class="embed-base rule-embed color-accent border-solid weight-light" style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: content-box; clear: both; color: #e2e2e2; height: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem; overflow: visible;" /><p style="box-sizing: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.2rem;"><a aria-label="Forbes Technology Council" class="color-link" data-ga-track="InternalLink:https://councils.forbes.com/forbestechcouncil?utm_source=forbes.com&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=forbes-links&utm_content=in-article-ad-links" href="https://councils.forbes.com/forbestechcouncil?utm_source=forbes.com&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=forbes-links&utm_content=in-article-ad-links" style="box-sizing: inherit; 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line-height: 16px; width: 380.484px;"><a class="author-name contrib-byline-author speakable-author" data-ga-track="contrib block byline" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/people/cristianrandieri/" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #333333; cursor: pointer; text-decoration-line: none;">Cristian Randieri</a></div></div></div></div><p class="contrib-bio" data-author-html-description="<p>Founder of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.intellisystem.it/" target="_blank" class="color-link" title="https://www.intellisystem.it/" rel="nofollow noopener">Intellisystem Technologies</a>. Scientific researcher and professor at eCampus University. NASA Genelab AWG AI/ML member.&nbsp;Read Cristian Randieri's full executive profile <a href="https://councils.forbes.com/u/a8d51f74-1094-4f34-aa2d-7b44daf219ec" target="_blank" class="color-link" title="https://councils.forbes.com/u/a8d51f74-1094-4f34-aa2d-7b44daf219ec">here</a>.</p>" data-is-expanded="false" style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: "Work Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 25px; margin: 0px;"></p><p style="box-sizing: inherit; display: inline; margin: 0px;">Founder of <a class="color-link" href="https://www.intellisystem.it/" rel="nofollow noopener" style="box-sizing: inherit; color: #003891; cursor: pointer;" target="_blank" title="https://www.intellisystem.it/">Intellisystem Technologies</a>. Scientific researcher and professor at eCampus University. 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Such places should also be designed in areas of the world where there is a low if not "zero" risk from earhtquakes and even if they were to happen they would be able to largely srurvive and withstand serious tremors with the right engineering designs. RS</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=bunkders+and+earthquakes&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB1046&oq=bunkders+and+earthquakes&aqs=chrome..69i57j33i10i160.7824j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8" style="text-align: left;">Google Search Listings</a></div></span></div><p></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=underground+cities+for+climate+chnage&rlz=1C1GCEA_enGB954GB1046&biw=1920&bih=969&sxsrf=AJOqlzWrgyWtg6kkNMi4Rqtev5HkPpsUwg%3A1677153385185&ei=aVT3Y57YCojvgQaB7YLwDg&ved=0ahUKEwjesIeey6v9AhWId8AKHYG2AO44WhDh1QMIDw&oq=underground+cities+for+climate+chnage&gs_lcp=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&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">underground cities/climate chnage</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/underground-cities">Wired article</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar" style="align-items: center; background-color: white; box-shadow: rgb(162, 169, 177) 0px 1px; color: #202122; display: flex; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; justify-content: flex-end;"><h1 class="firstHeading mw-first-heading" id="firstHeading" style="border: 0px; color: black; flex-grow: 1; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-size: 1.8em; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="mw-page-title-namespace">Category</span><span class="mw-page-title-separator">:</span><span class="mw-page-title-main">Underground cities</span></h1><div class="vector-menu vector-dropdown vector-menu-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang mw-ui-icon-flush-right" id="p-lang-btn" style="box-sizing: border-box; flex-shrink: 0; float: right; height: 2em; margin-right: -12px; margin-top: 2px; position: relative;"><input aria-haspopup="true" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); box-sizing: border-box; clear: right; display: flow-root; float: right; font-size: 12.32px; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 4px 0px 4px 1em; width: 238px;"><div class="side-box-flex" style="align-items: center; display: flex;"><div class="side-box-image" style="padding: 2px 0px 2px 0.9em; text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noviewer" data-file-height="1376" data-file-width="1024" decoding="async" height="40" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="30" /></div><div class="side-box-text plainlist" style="flex: 1 1 0%; padding: 0.25em 0.9em;">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><a class="extiw" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Underground_cities" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="commons:Category:Underground cities">Underground cities</a></span>.</div></div></div><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">For more information, see the article <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground city">Underground city</a>.</p><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref" role="note" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">See also the categories <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Skyways" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Skyways">Skyways</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Subterranean_structures" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Subterranean structures">Subterranean structures</a></div></div><div class="mw-category-generated" dir="ltr" lang="en"><div id="mw-subcategories" style="clear: both;"><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;">Subcategories</h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">This category has the following 3 subcategories, out of 3 total.</p><div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" lang="en"><div class="mw-category"><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">A</h3><ul style="list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeBullet" style="cursor: default; user-select: none;"><span class="CategoryTreeToggle CategoryTreeToggleHandlerAttached" data-ct-state="collapsed" data-ct-title="Ancient_underground_cities" style="border-bottom-color: transparent; border-left-color: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-style: solid none solid solid; border-top-color: transparent; border-width: 5px 0px 5px 10px; color: #0645ad; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; height: 0px; width: 0px;" title="expand"></span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_underground_cities" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Ancient underground cities">Ancient underground cities</a> <span dir="ltr" title="Contains 1 subcategory, 0 pages, and 0 files">(1 C)</span></div></div></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">P</h3><ul style="list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeEmptyBullet" style="border-bottom-color: transparent; border-left-color: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-style: solid none solid solid; border-top-color: transparent; border-width: 5px 0px 5px 10px; color: silver; cursor: default; display: inline-block; height: 0px; user-select: none; width: 0px;"></span> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:PATH_(Toronto)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:PATH (Toronto)">PATH (Toronto)</a> <span dir="ltr" title="Contains 0 subcategories, 39 pages, and 0 files">(39 P)</span></div></div></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">U</h3><ul style="list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 0.25em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeEmptyBullet" style="border-bottom-color: transparent; border-left-color: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-style: solid none solid solid; border-top-color: transparent; border-width: 5px 0px 5px 10px; color: silver; cursor: default; display: inline-block; height: 0px; user-select: none; width: 0px;"></span> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Underground_cities_in_Taipei" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Underground cities in Taipei">Underground cities in Taipei</a> <span dir="ltr" title="Contains 0 subcategories, 6 pages, and 0 files">(6 P)</span></div></div></li></ul></div></div></div></div><div id="mw-pages" style="clear: both;"><h2 style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); color: black; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;"><span class="anchor" id="Pages_in_category"></span>Pages in category "Underground cities"</h2><p style="margin: 0.5em 0px;">The following 38 pages are in this category, out of 38 total. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:FAQ/Categorization#Why_might_a_category_list_not_be_up_to_date?" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wikipedia:FAQ/Categorization">This list may not reflect recent changes</a>.</p><div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" lang="en"><div class="mw-category mw-category-columns" style="columns: 24em 3;"><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;"> </h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground city">Underground city</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">*</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_living" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground living">Underground living</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">A</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Atlanta" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground Atlanta">Underground Atlanta</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avinguda_de_la_Llum" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Avinguda de la Llum">Avinguda de la Llum</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayd%C4%B1ntepe_underground_City" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aydıntepe underground City">Aydıntepe underground City</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">B</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulla_Regia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bulla Regia">Bulla Regia</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">C</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cappadocia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Government_War_Headquarters" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Central Government War Headquarters">Central Government War Headquarters</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Pedway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chicago Pedway">Chicago Pedway</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%AB%C5%8D-ku,_Fukuoka" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chūō-ku, Fukuoka">Chūō-ku, Fukuoka</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coober_Pedy" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Coober Pedy">Coober Pedy</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_City,_Arlington,_Virginia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Crystal City, Arlington, Virginia">Crystal City, Arlington, Virginia</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">D</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Pedestrian_Network" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dallas Pedestrian Network">Dallas Pedestrian Network</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtown_Halifax_Link" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Downtown Halifax Link">Downtown Halifax Link</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">E</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskig%C3%BCm%C3%BC%C5%9F_Monastery" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Eskigümüş Monastery">Eskigümüş Monastery</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">F</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faizrakhmanist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Faizrakhmanist">Faizrakhmanist</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestiere_Underground_Gardens" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Forestiere Underground Gardens">Forestiere Underground Gardens</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">G</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gopher_Way" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Gopher Way">The Gopher Way</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">H</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_tunnel_system" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Houston tunnel system">Houston tunnel system</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">K</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamiyach%C5%8D_Shareo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kamiyachō Shareo">Kamiyachō Shareo</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandovan,_Osku" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kandovan, Osku">Kandovan, Osku</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">L</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Under" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="London Under">London Under</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">M</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matiate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Matiate">Matiate</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menzoberranzan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Menzoberranzan">Menzoberranzan</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_people" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mole people">Mole people</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_City,_Montreal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground City, Montreal">Underground City, Montreal</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">N</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nushabad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nushabad">Nushabad</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">O</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_City_Underground" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oklahoma City Underground">Oklahoma City Underground</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">P</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(Toronto)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Path (Toronto)">Path (Toronto)</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">S</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Underground" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Seattle Underground">Seattle Underground</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentralanlegget" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sentralanlegget">Sentralanlegget</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_tunnels" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shanghai tunnels">Shanghai tunnels</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiodome_City_Center" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shiodome City Center">Shiodome City Center</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranean_Toledo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Subterranean Toledo">Subterranean Toledo</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">T</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Village_Subway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The Village Subway">The Village Subway</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">U</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_City_(Beijing)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Underground City (Beijing)">Underground City (Beijing)</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-category-group"><h3 style="break-after: avoid-column; color: black; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em;">W</h3><ul style="list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0px 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnipeg_Walkway" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Winnipeg Walkway">Winnipeg Walkway</a></li><li style="break-inside: avoid-column; margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Street_Concourse" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Winter Street Concourse">Winter Street Concourse</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="catlinks" data-mw="interface" id="catlinks" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); clear: both; margin-top: 1em; padding: 5px;"><div class="mw-normal-catlinks" id="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul style="display: inline; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li style="border-left: 0px; display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em 0px 0.25em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Subterranean_buildings_and_structures" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Subterranean buildings and structures">Subterranean buildings and structures</a></li><li style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Cities_by_type" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Cities by type">Cities by type</a></li><li style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Pedestrian_infrastructure" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Pedestrian infrastructure">Pedestrian infrastructure</a></li><li style="border-left: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Tourist_attractions" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Tourist attractions">Tourist attractions</a></li></ul></div><div class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-ns-shown" id="mw-hidden-catlinks">Hidden category: <ul style="display: inline; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><li style="border-left: 0px; display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25em; margin: 0.125em 0px; padding: 0px 0.5em 0px 0.25em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div></div>Robert Searlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15492364980305779010noreply@blogger.com0