Showing posts with label wealth. Show all posts
Showing posts with label wealth. Show all posts

Wednesday, 20 March 2013

John Law

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedi
John Law
John Law-Casimir Balthazar mg 8450.jpg
John Law, by Casimir Balthazar
Born(1671-Expression error: Unrecognised punctuation character "?".-00) 1671
Edinburgh
Scotland
Died21 March 1729(1729-03-21) (aged 57)
Venice
Republic of Venice
OccupationEconomist, Banker, Financier, Author, Controller-General of Finances.
Signature
John Law (baptised 21 April 1671 – 21 March 1729) was a Scottish economist who believed that money was only a means of exchange that did not constitute wealth in itself and that national wealth depended on trade. He was appointed Controller General of Finances of France under King Louis XV.
In 1716 Law established the Banque Générale in France, a private bank, but three-quarters of the capital consisted of government bills and government-accepted notes, effectively making it the first central bank of the nation. He was responsible for the Mississippi Bubble and a chaotic economic collapse in France.
Law was a gambler and a brilliant mental calculator. He was known to win card games by mentally calculating the odds. He originated economic ideas such as "The Scarcity Theory of Value" and the "Real bills doctrine". Law’s views held that money creation will stimulate the economy, that paper money is preferable to metallic money which should be banned, and that shares are a superior form of money since they pay dividends.[1]

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[edit] Biography

Law was born into a family of bankers and goldsmiths from Fife; his father had purchased a landed estate at Cramond on the Firth of Forth and was known as Law of Lauriston. Law joined the family business at age fourteen and studied the banking business until his father died in 1688. Law subsequently neglected the firm in favour of more extravagant pursuits and travelled to London, where he lost large sums of money in gambling.[2]
On 9 April 1694, John Law fought a duel with Edward Wilson in Bloomsbury Square in London.[3] Wilson had challenged Law over the affections of Elizabeth Villiers. Law killed Wilson with a single pass and thrust of his sword.[4] He was arrested, charged with murder and stood trial at the Old Bailey.[4] He appeared before the infamously sadistic 'hanging-judge', Salathiel Lovell and was found guilty of murder, and sentenced to death.[5] He was initially incarcerated in Newgate Prison to await execution.[6] His sentence was later commuted to a fine, upon the ground that the offence only amounted to manslaughter. Wilson's brother appealed and had Law imprisoned, but he managed to escape to Amsterdam.[2]
Law urged the establishment of a national bank to create and increase instruments of credit and the issue of banknotes backed by land, gold, or silver. The first manifestation of Law's system came when he had returned to Scotland and contributed to the debates leading to the Treaty of Union 1707. He published a text entitled Money and Trade Consider'd with a Proposal for Supplying the Nation with Money (1705).[7] Law's propositions of creating a national bank in Scotland were ultimately rejected, and he left to pursue his ambitions abroad.[8]
He spent ten years moving between France and the Netherlands, dealing in financial speculations. Problems with the French economy presented the opportunity to put his system into practice.
He had the idea of abolishing minor monopolies and private farming of taxes. He would create a bank for national finance and a state company for commerce, ultimately to exclude all private revenue. This would create a huge monopoly of finance and trade run by the state, and its profits would pay off the national debt. The council called to consider Law's proposal, including financiars such as Samuel Bernard, rejected the proposition on 24 October 1715.[9]
The wars waged by Louis XIV left the country completely wasted, both economically and financially. The resultant shortage of precious metals led to a shortage of coins in circulation, which in turn limited the production of new coins. It was in this context that the regent, Philippe d'Orléans, appointed John Law as Controller General of Finances.
As Controller General, Law instituted many beneficial reforms (some of which had lasting effect, others of which were soon abolished). He tried to break up large land-holdings to benefit the peasants; he abolished internal road and canal tolls; he encouraged the building of new roads, the starting of new industries (even importing artisans but mostly by offering low-interest loans), and the revival of overseas commerce—and indeed industry increased 60% in two years, and the number of French ships engaged in export went from sixteen to three hundred.[10]
Since, following the devastating War of the Spanish Succession, France's economy was stagnant and her national debt was crippling, Law proposed to stimulate industry by replacing gold with paper credit and then increasing the supply of credit, and to reduce the national debt by replacing it with shares in economic ventures.[11] Though they failed, his theories ironically live on 300 years later and "captured many key conceptual points which are very much a part of modern monetary theorizing".[12]
Paper Money endorsed by John Law, 1718
Contemporary political cartoon of Law from Het Groote Tafereel der Dwaasheid (1720); text reads "Law loquitur. The wind is my treasure, cushion, and foundation. Master of the wind, I am master of life, and my wind monopoly becomes straightway the object of idolatry. Less rapidly turn the sails of the windmill on my head than the price of shares in my foolish enterprises."

[edit] Mississippi Company

Law would become the architect of what would later be known as "The Mississippi Bubble"; an event that would begin with the consolidation of the trading companies of Louisiana into a single monopoly (The Mississippi Company), and ended with the collapse of the Banque Generale and subsequent devaluing of The Mississippi Company's shares.[13] The company's shares were ultimately rendered worthless, and initially inflated speculation about their worth led to widespread financial stress, which saw Law dismissed from his post as Chief Director of the Banque Generale end of 1720. Law ultimately fled the country disguised as a woman for his own safety.[13]

[edit] Later years

Law initially moved to Brussels in impoverished circumstances. He spent the next few years gambling in Rome, Copenhagen and Venice but never regained his former prosperity. Law realised he would never return to France when Orléans died suddenly in 1723 and Law was granted permission to return to London, having received a pardon in 1719. He lived in London for four years and then moved to Venice where he contracted pneumonia and died a poor man in 1729.

[edit] Books

  • John Law: Economic Theorist and Policy-Maker by Antoin E. Murphy (Oxford University Press, 1997) is the most extensive account of Law's writings. It is given credit for completing the transformation of opinion about Law from a con man (see Mackay below) to an important economic theorist and successful financial leader.
  • Letters to John Law by Gavin John Adams (Newton Page, 2012) is a collection of early eighteenth-century political propagandist pamphlets documenting the hysteria surrounding John Law's return to Britain after the collapse of his Mississippi Scheme and expulsion from France. It also contains a very useful chronology and extensive biographical introduction to John Law and the Mississippi Scheme (ISBN 9781934619087).
  • Millionaire: The Philanderer, Gambler, and Duelist Who Invented Modern Finance by Janet Gleeson (2000). (ISBN 0-684-87295-1) is a straightforward biography.
  • The Poker Face of Wall Street by Aaron Brown (John Wiley & Sons, 2006) credits Law for the inspiration of the modern futures exchange and also the game of Poker.
  • John Law – The History of an Honest Adventurer by H. Montgomery Hyde (W. H. Allen, 1969) is one of the earliest favorable accounts of Law's ideas.
  • John Law, the father of paper money by Robert Minton (Association Press, 1975) treats Law's financial innovations that led to modern paper money.
  • Crime, Cash, Credit and Chaos by Colin McCall (Solcol, 2007) examines the events and circumstances that became Law's dramatic and tragic life.
  • Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds by Charles Mackay, published 1841, contains a colorful negative account of Law's financial activities in France. Available as a reprint and online, including as a free Kindle text.
  • The Gamester by Rafael Sabatini (Houghton Mifflin Company Boston, 1949) is a sympathetic fictionalized account of Law's career as financial adviser to the Duke of Orléans, Regent under Louis XV.

[edit] Films

Richard Condie's 1978 National Film Board of Canada (NFB) animated short John Law and the Mississippi Bubble is a humorous interpretation. The film was a collaboration between Condie and his sister, Sharon Condie, who had been inspired to make a film on the Mississippi Bubble after reading Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. The film was produced by the NFB at its newly opened Winnipeg studio. It opened in Canadian cinemas starting in September 1979 and was sold to international broadcasters. The film received an award at the Tampere Film Festival.[14]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, The Life and Times of Nicolas Dutot, November 2009
  2. ^ a b Mackay, Charles (1848). ["http://www.econlib.org/library/Mackay/macEx1.html" "1.3"]. Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. London: Office of the National Illustrated Library. "http://www.econlib.org/library/Mackay/macEx1.html".
  3. ^ Adams, Gavin John (2012). Letters to John Law. Newton Page. pp. xiv, xxi. http://books.google.com/books?id=espxkAw-5bsC&pg=PR21&dq=&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.
  4. ^ a b Adams, Gavin John (2012). Letters to John Law. Newton Page. p. xxi. http://books.google.com/books?id=espxkAw-5bsC&pg=PR21&dq=&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.
  5. ^ Adams, Gavin John (2012). Letters to John Law. Newton Page. pp. xiv, liii. http://books.google.com/books?id=espxkAw-5bsC&pg=PR14&dq=&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.
  6. ^ Adams, Gavin John (2012). Letters to John Law. Newton Page. p. xxi. http://books.google.com/books?id=espxkAw-5bsC&pg=PR21&dq=&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.
  7. ^ Buchan, James (1997). Frozen Desire: An inquiry into the meaning of money. Picador. pp. 136. ISBN 0-330-35527-9.
  8. ^ Collier's Encyclopedia (Book 14): "Law, John", page 384. P.F. Collier Inc, 1978.
  9. ^ Buchan, James (1997). Frozen Desire: An inquiry into the meaning of money. Picador. pp. 141. ISBN 0-330-35527-9.
  10. ^ Will and Ariel Durant, The Age of Voltaire, Simon & Schuster(1965), page 13
  11. ^ John Law by Antoin E Murphy, Oxford U. Press, 1997, page 105. http://books.google.com/books?id=0kduEtlToecC&pg=PA105&lpg=PP1&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html.
  12. ^ John Law by Antoin E Murphy, Oxford U. Press, 1997, page 1. http://books.google.com/books?id=0kduEtlToecC&pg=PA1&lpg=PP1&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html.
  13. ^ a b http://www.yourdictionary.com/finance/the-mississippi-bubble
  14. ^ Ohayon, Albert. "John Law and the Mississippi Bubble: The Madness of Crowds". NFB.ca Blog. National Film Board of Canada. http://blog.nfb.ca/2011/06/22/john-law-and-the-mississippi-bubble-the-madness-of-crowds/. Retrieved 22 June 2011.

[edit] External links

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Wednesday, 13 March 2013

Political Ecooomy

Political economy was the original term used for studying production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth. Political economy originated in moral philosophy. It was developed in the 18th century as the study of the economies of states, polities, hence the term political economy.
In the late 19th century, the term economics came to replace political economy, coinciding with publication of an influential textbook by Alfred Marshall in 1890.[1] Earlier, William Stanley Jevons, a proponent of mathematical methods applied to the subject, advocated economics for brevity and with the hope of the term becoming "the recognised name of a science."[2][3]
Today, political economy, where it is not used as a synonym for economics, may refer to very different things, including Marxian analysis, applied public-choice approaches emanating from the Chicago school and the Virginia school, or simply the advice given by economists to the government or public on general economic policy or on specific proposals.[3] A rapidly growing mainstream literature from the 1970s has expanded beyond the model of economic policy in which planners maximize utility of a representative individual toward examining how political forces affect the choice of economic policies, especially as to distributional conflicts and political institutions.[4] It is available as an area of study in certain colleges and universities.

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[edit] Etymology

Originally, political economy meant the study of the conditions under which production or consumption within limited parameters was organized in the nation-states. In that way, political economy expanded the emphasis of economics, which comes from the Greek oikos (meaning "home") and nomos (meaning "law" or "order"); thus political economy was meant to express the laws of production of wealth at the state level, just as economics was the ordering of the home. The phrase économie politique (translated in English as political economy) first appeared in France in 1615 with the well known book by Antoine de Montchrétien: Traité de l’economie politique. French physiocrats, Adam Smith, David Ricardo and German philosopher and social theorist Karl Marx were some of the exponents of political economy. The world's first professorship in political economy was established in 1754 at the University of Naples Federico II, Italy (then capital city of the Kingdom of Naples); the Neapolitan philosopher Antonio Genovesi was the first tenured professor; in 1763 Joseph von Sonnenfels was appointed a Political Economy chair at the University of Vienna, Austria. In 1805, Thomas Malthus became England's first professor of political economy, at the East India Company College, Haileybury, Hertfordshire.
In the United States, political economy first was taught at the College of William and Mary; in 1784, Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations was a required textbook.[5]

[edit] Current approaches

In its contemporary meaning, political economy refers to different, but related, approaches to studying economic and related behaviours, ranging from the combination of economics with other fields to the use of different, fundamental assumptions that challenge earlier economic assumptions:
Economists and political scientists often associate political economy with approaches using rational-choice assumptions,[11] especially in game theory,[12] and in examining phenomena beyond economics' standard remit, such as government failure and complex decision-making in which context the term "positive political economy" is common.[13] Other "traditional" topics include analysis of such public-policy issues as economic regulation,[14] monopoly, rent-seeking, market protection[15] institutional corruption,[16] and distributional politics.[17] Empirical analysis includes the influence of elections on the choice of economic policy, determinants and forecasting models of electoral outcomes, the political business cycles,[18] central-bank independence, and the politics of excessive deficits.[19]
A recent focus has been on modeling economic policy and political institutions as to interactions between agents and economic and political institutions,[20] including the seeming discrepancy of economic policy and economists' recommendations through the lens of transaction costs.[21] From the mid-1990s, the field has expanded, in part aided by new cross-national data sets that allow tests of hypotheses on comparative economic systems and institutions.[22] Topics have included the breakup of nations,[23] the origins and rate of change of political institutions in relation to economic growth,[24] development,[25] backwardness,[26] reform,[27] and transition economies,[28] the role of culture, ethnicity, and gender in explaining economic outcomes,[4] macroeconomic policy,[29] and the relation of constitutions to economic policy, theoretical[30] and empirical.[31]
  • New political economy may treat economic ideologies as the phenomenon to explain, per the traditions of Marxian political economy. Thus, Charles S. Maier suggests that a political economy approach: "interrogates economic doctrines to disclose their sociological and political premises....in sum, [it] regards economic ideas and behavior not as frameworks for analysis, but as beliefs and actions that must themselves be explained."[32] This approach informs Andrew Gamble's The Free Economy and the Strong State (Palgrave Macmillan, 1988), and Colin Hay's The Political Economy of New Labour (Manchester University Press, 1999). It also informs much work published in New Political Economy an international journal founded by Sheffield University scholars in 1996.[33]
  • International political economy (IPE) is an interdisciplinary field comprising approaches to the actions of various actors. In the US, these approaches are associated with the journal International Organization, which, in the 1970s, became the leading journal of international political economy under the editorship of Robert Keohane, Peter J. Katzenstein, and Stephen Krasner. They are also associated with the journal The Review of International Political Economy. There also is a more critical school of IPE, inspired by Karl Polanyi's work; two major figures are Matthew Watson and Robert W. Cox.[34]
  • Anthropologists, sociologists, and geographers use political economy in referring to the regimes of politics or economic values that emerge primarily at the level of states or regional governance, but also within smaller social groups and social networks. Because these regimes influence and are influenced by the organization of both social and economic capital, the analysis of dimensions lacking a standard economic value (e.g., the political economy of language, of gender, of religion) often draw on the concepts used in Marxian critiques of capital. Such approaches expand on neo-Marxian scholarship related to development and underdevelopment postulated by André Gunder Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein.
  • Historians have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.[35]

[edit] Related disciplines

Because political economy is not a unified discipline, there are studies using the term that overlap in subject matter, but have radically different perspectives:
  • Sociology studies the effects of persons' involvement in society as members of groups, and how that changes their ability to function. Many sociologists start from a perspective of production-determining relation from Karl Marx. Marx's theories on the subject of political economy are contained in his book, Das Kapital.
  • Anthropology studies political economy by investigating regimes of political and economic value that condition tacit aspects of sociocultural practices (for example, the pejorative use of pseudo-Spanish expressions in the US-American entertainment media) by means of broader historical, political, and sociological processes; analyses of structural features of transnational processes focus on the interactions between the world capitalist system and local cultures.
  • Psychology is the fulcrum on which political economy exerts its force in studying decision-making (not only in prices), but as the field of study whose assumptions model political economy.
  • History documents change, using it to argue political economy; historical works have political economy as the narrative's frame.
  • Human geography is concerned with politico-economic processes, emphasizing space and environment.[clarification needed]
  • Ecology deals with political economy, because human activity has the greatest effect upon the environment, its central concern being the environment's suitability for human activity. The ecological effects of economic activity spur research upon changing market economy incentives.
  • Cultural studies studies social class, production, labor, race, gender, and sex.
  • Communications examines the institutional aspects of media and telecommuncation systems. Communication, the area of study which focuses on aspects of human communication, pays particular attention to the relationships between owners, labor, consumers, advertisers, structures of production, the state, and power relationships embedded in these relationships.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Marshall, Alfred. (1890) Principles of Economics.
  2. ^ Jevons, W. Stanley. The Theory of Political Economy, 1879, 2nd ed. p. xiv.
  3. ^ a b Groenwegen, Peter. (1987 [2008]). "'political economy' and 'economics'", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 905-06. [Pp. 904–07.]
  4. ^ a b Alesina, Alberto F. (2007:3) "Political Economy," NBER Reporter, pp. 1-5. Abstract-linked-footnotes version.
  5. ^ Image of "Priorities of the College of William and Mary"
  6. ^ Weingast, Barry R., and Donald Wittman, ed., 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Political Economy. Oxford UP. Description and preview.
  7. ^ At JEL: P as in JEL Classification Codes Guide, drilled to at each economic-system link.
    For example:
    • Brandt, Loren, and Thomas G. Rawski (2008). "Chinese economic reforms," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
    • Helsley, Robert W. (2008). "urban political economy," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
  8. ^ At JEL: F5 as drilled to in JEL Classification Codes Guide.
    For example:
    • Gilpin, Robert (2001), Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order, Princeton. Description and ch. 1, " The New Global Economic Order" link.
    • Mitra, Devashish (2008). "trade policy, political economy of," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
  9. ^ At JEL: D72 with context for its usage in JEL Classification Codes Guide, drilled to at JEL: D7.
  10. ^ • Tullock, Gordon ([1987] 2008). "public choice," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Abstract.
    • Arrow, Kenneth J. (1963). Social Choice and Individual Values, 2nd ed., ch. VIII, sect. 2, The Social Decision Process, pp. 106-08.
  11. ^ Lohmann, Susanne (2008). "rational choice and political science," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
  12. ^ • Shubik, Martin (1981). "Game Theory Models and Methods in Political Economy," in K. Arrow and M. Intriligator, ed., Handbook of Mathematical Economics, Elsevier, v. 1, pp. 285-330.
    • _____ (1984). A Game-Theoretic Approach to Political Economy. MIT Press. Description and review extract.
    • _____ (1999). Political Economy, Oligopoly And Experimental Games: The Selected Essays of Martin Shubik, v. 1, Edward Elgar. Description and contents of Part I, Political Economy.
    • Peter C. Ordeshook (1990). "The Emerging Discipline of Political Economy," ch. 1 in Perspectives on Positive Political Economy, Cambridge, pp. 9-30.
    • _____ (1986). Game Theory and Political Theory, Cambridge. Description and preview.
  13. ^ Alt, James E.; Shepsle, Kenneth (eds.) (1990), Perspectives on Positive Political Economy (Cambridge [UK]; New York: Cambridge University Press). Description and content links and preview.
  14. ^ Rose, N. L. (2001). "Regulation, Political Economy of," International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 12967–12970. Abstract.
  15. ^ Krueger, Anne O. (1974). "The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society," American Economic Review, 64(3), p. 291–303.
  16. ^ • Bose, Niloy. "corruption and economic growth," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics Online, 2nd Edition, 2010. Abstract.
    • Rose-Ackerman, Susan (2008). "bribery," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
  17. ^ • Becker, Gary S. (1983). "A Theory of Competition among Pressure Groups for Political Influence," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 98(3), pp. 371-400.
    • Weingast, Barry R., Kenneth A. Shepsle, and Christopher Johnsen (1981). "The Political Economy of Benefits and Costs: A Neoclassical Approach to Distributive Politics," Journal of Political Economy, 89(4), pp. 642-664.
    • Breyer, Friedrich (1994). "The Political Economy of Intergenerational Redistribution," European Journal of Political Economy, 10(1), pp. 61–84. Abstract.
    • Williamson, Oliver E. (1995). "The Politics and Economics of Redistribution and Inefficiency," Greek Economic Review, December, 17, pp. 115-136, reprinted in Williamson (1996), The Mechanisms of Governance, Oxford University Press, ch. 8, pp. 195-218.
    • Krusell, Per, and José-Víctor Ríos-Rull (1999). "On the Size of U.S. Government: Political Economy in the Neoclassical Growth Model," American Economic Review, 89(5), pp. 1156-1181.
    • Galasso, Vincenzo, and Paola Profeta (2002). "The Political Economy of Social Security: A Survey," European Journal of Political Economy, 18(1), pp. 1–29.
  18. ^ • Drazen, Allan (2008). "Political business cycles," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
    • Nordhaus, William D. (1989). "Alternative Approaches to the Political Business Cycle," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, (2), pp. 1-68.
  19. ^ • Buchanan, James M. (2008). "public debt," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
    • Alesina, Alberto, and Roberto Perotti (1995). "The Political Economy of Budget Deficits," IMF Staff Papers, 42(1), pp. 1-31.
  20. ^ • Timothy, Besley (2007). Principled Agents?: The Political Economy of Good Government, Oxford. Description.
    • _____ and Torsten Persson (2008). "political institutions, economic approaches to," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
    • North, Douglass C. (1986). "The New Institutional Economics," Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 142(1), pp. 230-237.
    • _____ (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, in the Political Economy of Institutions and Decisions series. Cambridge. Description and preview.
    • Ostrom, Elinor (1990). Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press. Description and preview links. ISBN 9780521405997.
    • _____ (2010). "Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric Governance of Complex Economic Systems," American Economic Review, 100(3), pp. 641-72.
  21. ^ Dixit, Avinash (1996). The Making of Economic Policy: A Transaction Cost Politics Perspective. MIT Press. Description and chapter-preview links. Review-excerpt link.
  22. ^ Beck, Thorsten et al. (2001). "New Tools in Comparative Political Economy: The Database of Political Institutions," World Bank Economic Review,15(1), pp. 165-176.
  23. ^ Bolton, Patrick, and Gérard Roland (1997). "The Breakup of Nations: A Political Economy Analysis," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(4), pp. 1057-1090.
  24. ^ Alesina, Alberto, and Roberto Perotti (1994). "The Political Economy of Growth: A Critical Survey of the Recent Literature," World Bank Economic Review, 8(3), pp. 351-371.
  25. ^ Keefer, Philip (2004). "What Does Political Economy Tell Us about Economic Development and Vice Versa?" Annual Review of Political Science, 7, pp. 247–72. PDF.
  26. ^ Acemoğlu, Daron, and James A. Robinson (2006). "Economic Backwardness in Political Perspective," American Political Science Review, 100(1), pp. 115-131.
  27. ^ • Mukand, Sharun W. (2008). "policy reform, political economy of," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
    • Sturzenegger, Federico, and Mariano Tommasi (1998). The Polítical Economy of Reform, MIT Press. Description and chapter-preview links.
  28. ^ • Roland, Gérard (2002), "The Political Economy of Transition," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16(1), pp. 29-50.
    • _____ (2000). Transition and Economics: Politics, Markets, and Firms, MIT Press. Description and preview.
    • Manor, James (1999). The Political Economy of Democratic Decentralization, The World Bank. ISBN 9780821344705. Description.
  29. ^ Drazen, Allan (2000). Political Economy in Macroeconomics, Princeton. Description & ch. 1-preview link., and review extract.
  30. ^ • Persson, Torsten, and Guido Tabellini (2000). Political Economics: Explaining Economic Policy, MIT Press. Review extract, description and chapter-preview links.
    • Laffont, Jean-Jacques (2000). Incentives and Political Economy, Oxford. Description.
    • Acemoglu, Daron (2003). "Why Not a Political Coase Theorem? Social Conflict, Commitment, and Politics," Journal of Comparative Economics, 31(4), pp. 620–652.
  31. ^ Persson, Torsten, and Guido Tabellini (2003). The Economic Effects Of Constitutions, Munich Lectures in Economics. MIT Press. Description and preview, and review extract.
  32. ^ Mayer, Charles S. (1987). In Search of Stability: Explorations in Historical Political Economy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.3–6. Description and scrollable preview. Cambridge.
  33. ^ cf: Baker, David (2006). "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?", New Political Economy, 11(2), pp. 227–250.
  34. ^ Cohen, Benjamin J. "The transatlantic divide: Why are American and British IPE so different?", Review of International Political Economy, Vol. 14, No. 2, May 2007.
  35. ^ McCoy, Drew R. "The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America", Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina.

[edit] References

  • Baran, Paul A. (1957). The Political Economy of Growth. Monthly Review Press, New York. Review extrract.
  • Commons, John R. (1934 [1986]). Institutional Economics: Its Place in Political Economy, Macmillan. Description and preview.
  • Leroux, Robert (2011), Political Economy and Liberalism in France : The Contributions of Frédéric Bastiat, London, Routledge.
  • Maggi, Giovanni, and Andrés Rodríguez-Clare (2007). "A Political-Economy Theory of Trade Agreements," American Economic Review, 97(4), pp. 1374-1406.
  • O'Hara, Phillip Anthony, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, 2 v. Routledge. 2003 review links.
  • Pressman, Steven, Interactions in Political Economy: Malvern After Ten Years Routledge, 1996
  • Winch, Donald (1996). Riches and Poverty : An Intellectual History of Political Economy in Britain, 1750–1834 Cambridge: Cambridge U.P.
  • Winch, Donald (1973). "The Emergence of Economics as a Science, 1750–1870." In: The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. 3. London: Collins/Fontana.

[edit] Journals

[edit] External links

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Political Economy
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Political Economy.
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